Suchergebnisse

The article "Ochotnicy z Polski w szeregach Siczy Zakarpackiej 1938–1939" Polish volunteers in the ranks of Carpathian Sich 1938–1939 covers information concerning the recruitment and relocation of Ukrainian volunteers from Poland. The article presents one of many episodes from Ukrainian history – the history of Ukrainian state which was established in March 1939 and lasted for a few days only, due to the anexation of the area by Hungary and Mikóls Hortheg and finally abolished on 18'th March 1939. During the existence of Carpathian Ruthenia the then government formed the national armed forces (the Carpathian Sich) which was intended to provide for the state The hereby publication is based on reference materials from Ukrainian archives in Lviv, as well as on related literature. The publication is a beginning to a discussion on the above mentioned topic being unknown to the contemporary historiography. The article consists of two integral parts. The first one describes the methods of recruitment of Ukrainian volunteers in Poland, the way of their transfer through the Polish-Czechoslovakian border to the territory of Carpathian Ukraine. The study of Polish source material by the conducted by the author points out that Carpathian Sich organized by the Carpatho-Ukraine government, having neither international suport nor the mass influx of volunteers also from Poland to its ranks would not be able to exist. This part also covers information concerning the organization and protection of Polish-Czechoslowakian border by Polish border control on the territory of the Carpathians. The article presents the then Polish authorities` attitude towards their citizens of Ukrainian origin, who decided to join the Carpathian Sich in hope to create an independent Ukraine. As a result, they were deprived of their nationality and left as stateless persons. When discussing the subject matter, the author presents it in the context of international circumstances which developed in that time in the Middle Eastern Europe. The author presents fragments of records of interviews of the arrested persons by the Polish Border Guard during the attempt to cross the border illegally which deserve particular attention. The above mentioned fragments of arrest records depict organization of recruitment of volunteers to the Carpathian Sich on the territory of Poland on the one hand and show the strong support of the idea of establishing an independent Ukrainian state on the other hand. The complementation of the article are the attachments with statistical data of people, who succeeded to get to the territory of Carpathian Ukraine indicating that it was a massive movement.The second part, being an attachment to the article, presents registration of 106 Polish people [residing on the territory of Lesko, Przemyśl and Drochobycz County], who due to their service in Carpathian Sich, were deprived of their Polish citizenship under art. 11 law 2 from 20'th January 1920 concerning the Polish citizenship. The author presents the list of persons with Ukrainian nationality (from the Lesko, Przemyśl and Drohobycz country) in the following order: name and surname, date of birth, place of birth, place of residence and county, which allowed for finding the identity of the person presented in the lists. Personal details of the formation's members who fought against Hungarian troops in 1938 which are to be found in the lists emphatically indicate that Carpathian Sich organization involved almost all Ukrainian male population residing in the border area. Keywords: Carpathian Ukraine, Carpathian Sich, Organization of Ukrainian Nationalists, agitation, the method of recruitment to the formation, Ukrainian volunteers, couriers, Prosvita reading rooms, border protection system, illegal border crossing, Border Guard, Border Protection Corps, detention of persons, investigation of persons, loss of Polish citizenship, governon country, Official Gazette of the Republic of Poland. ; У статті міститься інформація щодо набору та переселення українських волонтерів з Польщі. У статті представлений один із багатьох епізодів з історії України – історії української держави, яка була створена у березні 1939 р. Держава проіснувала лише декілька днів, адже проти неї було проведено спецоперацію угорськими військами Мівольса Хортога. Українська держава була скасована 18 березня 1939 р. За часів існування Карпатської Русі тодішній уряд сформував національну збройну силу (Карпатську Січ), яка мала на меті захищати державу. Публікація визначається довідковими матеріалами українських архівів у Львові, а також су­між­ною літературою. У статті висвітлено також ставлення польських властей до своїх громадян українського походження, які вирішили приєднатися до Карпатської Січі з надією створити незалежну Україну. У результаті вони були позбавлені громадянства та залишилися як особи без громадянства. Обговорюючи предмет дослідження, автор подає його в контексті міжнародних обставин, що розвивалися в той час у країнах Близького Сходу. Автор подає фрагменти протоколів інтерв'ю затри­маних польською прикордонною службою під час спроби незаконного перетину кордону. Наведені фраг­менти документів арешту зображають, з одного боку, організацію набору добровольців до Карпатської Січі на територію Польщі, і, з іншого боку, демонструють рішучу підтримку ідеї створення незалежної української держави. Доповненням до статті є вкладення зі статистичними даними людей, яким вдалося пройти на територію Карпатської України. Друга частина, що доповнює статтю, представляє собою реєст­ра­цію 106 поляків, які мешкали на території м. Лесько, Перемишля та Дрогобича. Вони через службу в Карпатській Січі були позбавлені громадянства Польщі згідно статті 11 закону 2 від 20 січня 1920 р. стосовно польського громадянства. Автор подає перелік осіб з громадянством України з міст Лесько, Перемишль та Дрогобича в такому порядку: ім'я та прізвище, дата народження, місце народження та місце проживання. Особисті дані учасників формування, які боролися проти угорських військ у 1938 р., чітко вказують на те, що організація Карпатської Січі включала майже все українське чоловіче населення, що мешкає на прикордонній території. Ключові слова: Карпатська Україна, Карпатська Січ, Організація Українських Націоналістів, агітація, метод набору на формування, українські волонтери, кур'єри, читальня "Просвіта", система захисту кордону, нелегальний перехід кордону, прикордонна служба, корпус прикордонної служби, затримання осіб, розслідування осіб, втрата польського громадянства, країна-губернатор, офіційна газета Республіки Польща.

Zoonotic diseases, which are caused by pathogens that transmit from animals into humans, are responsible for numerous ongoing public health burdens, such as leptospirosis, rabies, and West Nile virus infections, and are also considered a probable source of future epidemics in humans. Describing and quantifying the transmission dynamics of these pathogens is vital if we wish to assess which of the many known zoonotic pathogens pose a threat to humans and which management strategies would be most effective at minimizing that threat. To conduct these assessments, it is necessary to consider the ecological dynamics and interactions driving zoonotic disease transmission. A zoonotic pathogen's impact on humans depends not only on transmission dynamics within the human population, including heterogeneities in human contacts and interactions with endemic human pathogens, but also on disease dynamics within the reservoir and at the human-reservoir interface. Because of the complex ecological interactions driving the spread of zoonotic pathogens, qualitatively and quantitatively characterizing their spread and devising rational management strategies requires combining insights from community ecology, invasion biology, and classical single-host disease ecology with system-specific information about the pathways of transmission within the reservoir, within humans, and between the two. Bringing together these complementary perspectives can shed light on the key processes driving transmission, which is essential for predicting how changes, both purposeful interventions and natural shifts, may alter the system's behavior. In this dissertation, I present three studies that use diverse methods to explore different aspects of zoonotic pathogens' disease dynamics. In chapter 1, I use a theoretical approach to explore the effects of competition between a zoonotic pathogen and a human-endemic pathogen in the context of a disease eradication program. I use a deterministic compartmental model that tracks spillover and transmission of a zoonotic disease in humans as well as transmission of a partially cross-protective endemic human pathogen to examine how the presence of the zoonotic pathogen can reduce the vaccination coverage necessary to eradicate the human pathogen and how the zoonotic pathogen's prevalence is expected to change during and following a successful eradication campaign. I then use the smallpox-monkeypox system as a case study to assess how the theoretical findings apply in a real-world context. In chapter 2, I move from theoretical explorations of disease dynamics to using real-world datasets to inform mechanistic models. Zoonotic disease surveillance datasets are valuable sources of information about disease dynamics, but are generally difficult and expensive to obtain and are associated with a variety of data limitations. This chapter develops methods to extract as much information as possible from these valuable information sources. I develop a model-based inference method that addresses a number of data challenges, including unobserved sources of transmission (both human and zoonotic), limited spatial information, and unknown scope of surveillance, using a spatial model with two levels of mixing. After demonstrating the robustness of the method using simulation studies, I apply the new method to a dataset of human monkeypox cases detected during an active surveillance program from 1982-1986 in the Democratic Republic of the Congo. The results provide estimates of the reproductive number and spillover rate of monkeypox during this surveillance period and suggest that most human-to-human transmission events occur over distances of 30 km or less. Taking advantage of contact-tracing data available for a subset of monkeypox cases, I find that around 80% of contact-traced links could be correctly recovered from transmission trees inferred using only date and location. The results highlight the importance of identifying the appropriate spatial scale of transmission, and show how even imperfect spatiotemporal data can be incorporated into models of zoonotic pathogens to obtain reliable estimates of transmission patterns.Chapter 3 shifts from examining the dynamics of zoonotic pathogens after they have already spilled into humans to evaluating how interventions in the zoonotic reservoir could help reduce the risk of spillover occurring in the first place. This chapter focuses on evaluating interventions to minimize the risk of spillover of swine-origin influenza A viruses (IAV-S) into humans in the United States. In the past decade, the majority of reported human infections with IAV-S in the United States have been associated with individuals exposed to exhibition swine while attending agricultural shows. Because these exhibition swine make up a largely distinct population within the US swine herd, there is great potential to implement control practices within exhibition swine that could substantially reduce risk of spillover into humans. To understand the factors that drive influenza prevalence and persistence in US exhibition swine and to evaluate the impact of potential interventions, I develop a network model that characterizes disease spread into and among exhibition swine. The model incorporates key structural information about the system and is informed by a unique surveillance dataset collected from shows in Ohio, Michigan, and Indiana, including IAV-S genomes from more than one hundred infected swine. I use several different approaches based on both epidemiological and sequence data to estimate parameters describing transmission and to evaluate the expected impact of a set of thirty potential interventions on the risk of spillover into humans. Across all approaches, several interventions consistently are found to perform best at reducing projected spillover risk, including requiring participants to take one or two weeks off between shows and implementing strategies to reduce transmission probabilities among swine at shows.While the studies presented in these chapters range from theoretical explorations of simplified systems to direct comparisons of intervention impacts incorporating messy real-world data and complex system structure, they all pursue the common goal of providing insights relevant for conceptualizing the prominent forces in a system and for using that understanding to inform decisions on control measures in a real-world context.

[Resumen] Lituania y Polonia estuvieron unidas por una unión personal en 1386 y por una unión real desde 1569. La estructura y, en una extensión menor, también las materias sujetas de los tres estatutos lituanos surgidos en el siglo XVI demuestran la influencia del Derecho Romano. En 1808 el Ducado de Varsovia introdujo el Código civil francés con algunas modificaciones. La ley polaca de obligaciones de 1933 refleja una influencia principalmente del Obligationenrecht suizo y del proyecto de ley franco-italiano de contratos y obligaciones de 1927. El Código civil polaco de 1964 recibe la influencia de la Escuela Pandectista alemana, de la doctrina del Derecho civil frances y del Derecho civil suizo. Los Estados de los Balcanes recibieron el Derecho Romano a través de la mediación del Imperio Bizantino y su sistema jurídico. En 1867 un código titulado Medzellé fue introducido en el territorio de lo que es hoy Bulgaria, buscando armonizar el derecho islámico con el derecho de los Países europeos. Las tradiciones del Derecho Romano siguen permaneciendo en leyes de 1950 y 1951. Servia aplicó el Derecho Romano-Bizantino en una gran extensión. La estructura del Código civil serbio de 1844 siguiò le estructura de instituciones. Sus redactores consideraron el ABGB austríaco como modelo. Después de la Segunda Guerra mundial fue promulgada la Ley del derecho de obligaciones en 1978. Esta ley fue puesta en todo el territorio de la Federación Yugoslava siguiendo básicamente las tradiciones de codificación de la Europa Occidental con raíces en el Derecho Romano. En los dos principados rumanos, que surgieron a lo largo del siglo XIII, el impacto del Derecho Romano-Bizantino pueden sentirse relativamente fuerte. El Código de derecho civil rumano de 1864 estaba influenciado por el Code civil francés y por el Proyecto de Codice civile italiano de Giuseppe Pisanelli. Fue en gran parte debido a las relaciones comerciales con Bizancio que el Derecho Romano alcanzó Rusia. El otro factor de mediación fue la Iglesia Ortodoxa. A comienzos del siglo XIX los juristas G.A. von Rosenkampf, M.M. Speranski y el húngaro Mihály Balugyánszky [Michael Balugianski] comenzaron la obra de la consolidación del sistema jurídico del Imperio Ruso. En 1882 el Zar Alejandro III estableció un comité de codificación que publicó los proyectos de Código civil ruso de 1899 y 1903. La estructura del proyecto de código civil se basaba en el Derecho de los Pandectas. El impacto de la Escuela Pandectista pude sentirse también en el Código civil ruso-soviético de 1922 de A.G. Gojkbarg. Lo mismo ocurre con Los Principios de la Legislación Civil surgidos en 1961. Así que el Código civil ruso-soviético de 1964 se basó en la estructura de los Pandectas no sólo en su estructura sino en la mayoría de sus instituciones. El nuevo (actual) Código civil ruso (1995-2007) fue puesto en vigor gradualmente como el nuevo código civil holandés y demuestra la influencia del BGB alemán y también del nuevo Código civil holandés. ; [Abstract] Lithuania and Poland were united by personal union in 1386 and by real union in 1569. The three Lithuanian Statutes promulgated in the XVIth century reflected both by their structure and their content the influence of Roman law. In 1808 in the Duchy of Warszaw a modified version of the French Civil Code was adopted. The Polish Act of Obligations of 1933 reflects mostly the influence of the Swiss Obligationenrecht as well as of the Projet franco-italien des contrats et des obligations of 1927. The Polish Civil Code of 1964 was influenced by the German Pandectist School and by the doctrine of the French and Swiss civil law. The Balkan States entered into contact with Roman law through the mediation of the Byzantine Empire and its legal system. In 1867 the Medjelle code went into effect on the territory of present-day Bulgaria aiming at harmonisation of Islamic law with the legal system of the European countries. The Roman law tradition can be observed in the acts promulgated in 1950 and in 1951. Serbia also availed itself to a great extent of the Romano-Byzantine law. The structure of Serbian Civil Code of 1844 followed the system of the Institutes. Its drafters regarded as a model the Austrian Civil Code. In Yugoslavia the Act of Obligations was promulgated in 1978. This Act based on both Roman law traditions and the civil law codification in Europe was put into effect on the whole territory of the Federal State of Yugoslavia. The two Rumanian principalities, the origin of which dates back to the XIIIth century, experienced a relatively strong influence of the Romano-Byzantine law. The Rumanian Civil Code of 1864 was influence by the French Code civil and the Draft of the Italian Codice civile of Giuseppe Pisanelli. In Russia the knowledge of Roman law was due mostly to the commercial relations with Byzantium. The other mediating factor was the Orthodox Church. At the beginning of the XIXth century the jurists G.A. von Rosenkampf, M.M. Speranski and the Hungarian legal scholar Mihály Balugyánszky [Michael Balugianski] commenced the work of consolidation of the legal system of the Russian Empire. In 1882 the tzar Alexander III established a commission of codification which prepared the drafts of a Russian Civil Code in 1899 and in 1903. The structure of the Draft Russian Civil Code followed the system elaborated by the German pandectists. The Pandectist School of Law may be observed also in the Civil Code of Soviet Russia drafted by A.G. Gojkbarg in l922. The same is holding true for the Principles (Fundamentals) of the Civil Law Legislation of the Soviet Union promulgated in 1961. The Civil Code of the Federal Republic of Russia of the Soviet Union promulgated in 1964 is based both in its structure and regarding the regulation of the majority of legal institutions on the Pandectist legal tradition. The new Russian Civil Code (1995-2007) which was put into force gradually, like the new Dutch Civil Code, reflects mainly the influence of the German BGB and of the new Dutch Civil Code.

Nuestra Constitución establece que el más alto deber del Estado consiste en respetar y hacer respetar los derechos garantizados en la Constitución y dentro de la carta magna forman parte el acceso a la justicia y la tutela judicial efectiva. No obstante, el reconocimiento constitucional a estos derechos no ha necesariamente dado una solución integral a los requerimientos de justicia del país, esta debilidad que tiene el Estado frente a la garantía y respeto de los derechos de protección. La consecuente violación de estos derechos a las ciudadanas y ciudadanos, propicia la necesidad de identificar el problema raíz y proponer alternativas de solución que puedan utilizarse como una herramienta idónea para que el Estado subsane la situación que se vive actualmente. La Ley de Arbitraje y Mediación de Ecuador define a la mediación como un procedimiento de solución de conflictos por el cual las partes, asistidas por un tercero neutral llamado mediador, procuran un acuerdo voluntario, que verse sobre materia transigible, de carácter extrajudicial y definitivo, que ponga fin al conflicto (Asamblea Nacional, 2006). No obstante, la solo existencia de este mecanismo legal como un medio de acceso a la justicia no puede considerarse un aporte determinante a un camino de solución del problema si la utilización de dicho método no es obligatoria en la etapa previa a un proceso en la justicia ordinaria. Por lo cual, ante la ausencia de normativa que direccione y mande la aplicación de este método alternativo de solución de conflicto y no habiendo parámetros que excluyan o restrinjan controversias de diminuta cuantía o conflicto, esto puede haber incidido en una congestión procesal de causas que por su naturaleza, dimensión o relevancia social pudiesen o pudieron ser atendidas en un centro de mediación. De utilizarse previamente un acuerdo extrajudicial voluntario, se materializarían dos circunstancias fácticas: la primera que las partes en conflicto tendrían capacidad de ejercer su derecho constitucional a la libre contratación, expresado como su voluntad y su capacidad de decisión la solución del conflicto que se requiere solución. La segunda, que al contarse con una alternativa obligatoria, los conflicto derivados a mediación se convierten automáticamente en una solución que no necesito ser atendida en la justicia ordinaria. Si bien es cierto Ecuador cuenta con un ordenamiento jurídico existente, todo sistema judicial puede adolecer de circunstancias propias de la realidad económica del país que pueden afectar su correcto desarrollo, a su vez, todo sistema judicial es perfectible y debe ser un compromiso perenne de los administradores del Consejo de la Judicatura el evaluarse y formularse constantemente propuesta de mejoramiento. Este estudio propone crear un análisis en el cual se evalué instrumentar a la mediación como parte de una etapa pre procesal, siendo un habilitante para el inicio de acciones legales en sede jurisdiccional, con la finalidad de por medio de un acuerdo con efectos de sentencia, obtener el acceso a la justicia sin necesidad de incurrir en un proceso judicial. ; The arbitration and mediation law in Ecuador defines mediation as a conflict resolution procedure by which the involved parties are assisted by a third party named the "mediator" the person who helps negotiate between two feuding parties with the purpose to remain in the neutral middle rather than taking one side over another, in order to help both sides resolve a dispute. However, just the existence of this legal mechanism as an access to obtain justice it is not a mandatory in our legislation to initiate a legal prosecution, which coincide a legal procedure congestion that for a legal causes which for their origins, dimension and or social relevance it could or could not be in attendance of in a mediation stage, propitiating with this extra judicial voluntary agreement that all parties in conflict exert their constitutional rights to the free procurement, stated as per their free will and their own decision capacity, preserving people's right in the event that they can't come to a mutual agreement or concur to a legal court procedures. This study wishes to create an analysis in which mediation is considered as a pre-procedural path and an enabling condition for the initiation of legal actions in the jurisdictional venue, in order to obtain, through an agreement with judgment effects , access to justice without the need to go through a judicial process.

งานวิจัยฉบับนี้ต้องการศึกษาว่าสิทธิการเข้าถึงและการใช้ประโยชน์ทรัพยากรในป่าประเขานันแต่เดิมเป็นอย่างไร เปลี่ยนแปลงมาอย่างไร มีเงื่อนไขอะไรที่ทำให้เกิดการเปลี่ยนแปลง การเปลี่ยนแปลงดังกล่าวนำไปสู่พลวัตความขัดแย้งอย่างไร ผู้ใช้ทรัพยากรในป่าประเคลื่อนไหวต่อรองหรือปรับตัวอย่างไร เพื่อให้ได้สิทธิการเข้าถึงและการใช้ประโยชน์ทรัพยากรในป่าประดังกล่าว ผลการศึกษาสรุปได้ดังนี้มีชาวบ้านในชุมชนใกล้ป่าประได้เข้าไปใช้ทรัพยากรมาไม่น้อยกว่า 100 ปีแล้วในช่วงนี้ทรัพยากรยังมีความอุดมสมบูรณ์มาก คนใช้ยังมีน้อย คนมีความใกล้ชิดกัน และยังเชื่อในอำนาจเหนือธรรมชาติ ในขณะที่อำนาจของรัฐและทุนยังขยายตัวขึ้นไปไม่ถึง สิทธิการเข้าถึงจึงปรากฏออกมาในลักษณะของสิทธิการใช้ประโยชน์ (usufruct rights) คือทุกคนมีสิทธิเข้าถึงทรัพยากรได้ถ้าต้องการนำไปใช้ประโยชน์ในการดำรงชีวิต ส่วนสิทธิการใช้ประโยชน์นั้นชาวบ้านมีสิทธิใช้ประโยชน์ทรัพยากรเท่าที่จำเป็น ใช้อย่างคุ้มค่า และใช้แบบไม่ทำลาย ในยุคนี้ยังไม่มีเงื่อนไขเชิงโครงสร้างที่จะทำให้ชาวบ้านเกิดความขัดแย้งกันในช่วงปลายทศวรรษ 2490 รัฐบาลได้ให้สัมปทานขุดแร่แหล่งแรก และให้สัมปทานอีกแหล่งหนึ่งในต้นทศวรรษ 2510 บริษัทขุดแร่ได้สร้างถนนลงมายังพื้นที่ล่างเพื่อใช้ลำเลียงแร่ ถนนดังกล่าวนี้ส่วหนึ่งได้ผ่านไปใกล้พื้นที่ป่าประด้วย การเกิดถนนทำให้อิทธิพลของตลาดเข้าสู่ชุมชนต่าง ๆ ทั้งทางกายภาพและทางความคิด พร้อมกับเป็นเส้นทางให้คนจากพื้นล่างขึ้นไปหักร้างถางพงหาที่ทำกินและสร้างที่อยู่อาศัย ทำให้มีคนเข้าไปใช้ประโยชน์ทรัพยากรในป่าประเพิ่มขึ้นเรื่อย ๆ ในต้นทศวรรษ 2510 รัฐบาลได้ให้สัมปทานป่าไม้บริเวณที่ไม่ไกลจากป่าประนัก แต่ว่าบริษัทที่ได้รับสัมปทานได้ลักลอบเข้าไปตัดไม้ในป่าประด้วย โดยอ้างกับชาวบ้านว่าได้รับอนุญาตจากทางราชการแล้ว ทำให้ชาวบ้านรู้สึกว่าป่าไม้ไม่ได้เป็นของพวกเขาอีกต่อไป และเริ่มไม่แน่ใจในอำนาจของสิ่งศักดิ์สิทธิ์ในการเป็นเจ้าป่าเจ้าเขา เพราะบริษัทที่เข้ามาตัดไม้ใช้เลื่อยยนต์โค่นไม้ลงมาอย่างง่ายดาย รวมทั้งชาวบ้านเห็นว่ารัฐได้เอาป่าไม้ที่พวกเขาเคยดูแลและใช้ประโยชน์ไปให้นายทุน ในขณะที่เศรษฐกิจแบบใหม่ได้เข้าไปมีอิทธิพลต่อชีวิตความเป็นอยู่ของชาวบ้านมากขึ้น ทำให้ชาวบ้านได้ถอยห่างออกมาจากแบบแผนการใช้ทรัพยากรที่เป็นมาแต่เดิมมากขึ้นเป็นลำดับ และปรับตัวไปสู่ความสัมพันธ์แบบใหม่ที่จะช่วยให้พวกเขาสามารถนำทรัพยากรในป่าประมาใช้ประโยชน์ในตลาดสมัยใหม่ การเปลี่ยนแปลงดังกล่าวส่งผลให้เกิดการเปลี่ยนแปลงสิทธิในการเข้าถึงและใช้ประโยชน์ทรัพยากรในป่าประ โดยสิทธิการเข้าถึงทรัพยากรได้เปลี่ยนไปสู่การเข้าถึงแบบเสรี (open access) และการเข้าถึงแบบการถือครองเป็นทรัพย์สินส่วนบุคคล(private property) การเข้าถึงแบบเสรีจะเกิดในกรณีการตัดไม้ การเก็บลูกประ และการเก็บของป่าอื่น ๆ ส่วนการถือครองเป็นทรัพย์สินส่วนตัวได้แก่การบุกเบิกป่าเพื่อถือครองที่ดินสำหรับการตั้งบ้านเรือนและการทำสวน ในขณะเดียวกันสิทธิการใช้ประโยชน์ทรัพยากรในป่าประในยุคนี้ก็ค่อย ๆ เปลี่ยนไปสู่การนำทรัพยากรจากป่าประมาใช้ประโยชน์เพื่อสร้างรายได้ให้มากที่สุด ภายใต้การเปลี่ยนแปลงดังกล่าวได้ก่อให้เกิดความขัดแย้งในหลายมิติควบคู่มาด้วย ตั้งแต่ความขัดแย้งระหว่างโครงสร้างการจัดการทรัพยากรของชุมชนกับโครงสร้างอำนาจของรัฐและทุน ความขัดแย้งระหว่างชาวบ้านกับรัฐและทุน และความขัดแย้งระหว่างชาวบ้านด้วยกันเอง ในสถานการณ์ความขัดแย้งเช่นนี้ชาวบ้านได้ปรับตัวออกจากโครงสร้างอำนาจของชุมชนไปสู่การโอนอ่อนต่ออำนาจของตลาด คือการพยายามใช้สิทธิการเข้าถึงและการใช้ประโยชน์ทรัพยากรในป่าประไปในทางที่จะนำทรัพยากรมาขายในตลาดอย่างเต็มที่จนกระทั่งปี 2535 รัฐบาลได้ประกาศจัดตั้งอุทยานแห่งชาติเขานัน ซึ่งพื้นที่ป่าประก็อยู่ในเขตอุทยานดังกล่าวด้วย การเกิดขึ้นของอุทยานแห่งชาติกลับเร่งให้เกิดการพัฒนาสิทธิการเข้าถึงไปในทางของการใช้ทรัพยากรบางส่วนอย่างเสรี (open access) มากขึ้น และการยึดทรัพยากรบางส่วนเป็นของส่วนตัว (private property) มากขึ้น ในขณะที่สิทธิการใช้ประโยชน์ก็ปรากฏในรูปของการนำทรัพยากรมาขายให้มากที่สุด ทั้งนี้เพราะชาวบ้านมองว่าทรัพยากรที่อยู่ในเขตอุทยานนั้นเป็นของหลวงใครจะใช้อย่างไรก็ได้ ในขณะที่การปฏิบัติหน้าที่ของเจ้าหน้าที่อุทยานชาวบ้านก็ไม่เกรงกลัว เพราะชาวบ้านมีวิธีที่จะหลบหลีกและกดดันให้รอดพ้นจากการจับกุม พร้อมกันนี้การขยายตัวของตลาดทุนนิยมเข้าไปในพื้นที่ก็มีความรุนแรงมากขึ้น ทำให้ที่ดินในป่าจำนวนมากถูกขายให้แก่คนพื้นล่าง ในสถานการณ์เช่นนี้ยิ่งทำให้ความขัดแย้งเข้มข้นขึ้นอีก เพราะยิ่งแสดงให้เห็นว่าเจ้าหน้าที่อุทยานถูกท้าทายในเรื่องการปฏิบัติตามกฎหมาย และชาวบ้านไม่หวั่นเกรงอำนาจรัฐ ในขณะที่ได้เพิ่มอำนาจของคนอีกกลุ่มเข้ามาหนุนชาวบ้าน คือกลุ่มคนที่เข้ามาซื้อที่ดิน เพราะคนกลุ่มนี้มักจะมีอำนาจอยู่ในสังคม ในความขัดแย้งดังกล่าวนี้ชาวบ้านพยายามนำกลยุทธ์การต่อรองหลายอย่างมาใช้ได้แก่ การแผ้วถางป่าแบบหลบซ่อนและหลบหลีกไม่ให้เจ้าหน้าที่อุทยานมาพบเห็น แบบทำเป็นไม่รู้อะไรเมื่อเจ้าหน้าที่อุทยานมาพบ แบบสร้างภาพลักษณ์ให้สังคมสนับสนุน และแบบเรียกร้องขอความเป็นธรรมสำหรับแนวทางการแก้ปัญหานั้นรัฐจะต้องยอมรับหลักการการจัดการเชิงซ้อน คือฟื้นฟูหลักการเดิมของชุมชนมาใช้ร่วมกับหลักการของรัฐ เพื่อให้ชาวบ้านสามารถอยู่ร่วมกับป่าได้ในขณะที่รัฐสามารถรักษาพื้นที่ป่าไว้ได้ด้วยเช่นกันChanges in Rights of Access and Withdrawal in Pra Forest, and Conflict: A Case Study of Pra Forest, Khao Nan National Park, Noppitam District, Nakhon Si Thammarat Province This thesis aims to study the changes in rights of access and withdrawal of resources in the Pra Forest at Khao Nun in order to identify the origin, the changes process and the conditions that affect changes which eventually lead to the dynamism of conflicts, the people's movement towards negotiation and adaptation for rights of access and withdrawal. The findings of the study are as follows:The people in the communities near Pra forest had been exploiting the resources in the fertile forest for over 100 years. At that time, there were fewer people who were closely knitted and had a firm belief in supernatural powers while they were in accessible for the power of state and capital. In the format of usufruct rights, i.e. everyone could equally access the resources for daily living, the rights to use available resources was that resources must be used as a necessity, something precious and something to be preserved. In this period, there were no conditions in the structure that led to conflict.Towards the end of the decade (B.E. 2490), the government tendered out the rights to mining on Kao Lek to another party on Krung Ching at the beginning of the decade (B.E. 2510). The mining companies then built roads to transport their dug-up minerals. These roads not only passed nearby the forest area making the markets influence communities both physically and spiritually but also transported people from downhill areas to deforest the land for settlements and home buildings. As a result, there have been an increasing number of people to make their livelihoods on the Pra Forest.At the beginning of the decade (B.E. 2510), the government tendered out the forest area, not far from Pra Forest but the authorized companies took this opportunity to illegally fell down trees by announcing to the villagers that they were authorized by the government to do so, causing the people to feel that the forest was no longer theirs and began to doubt the sacred power of the supernatural protectors of the mountain and the forest when they could see with their own eyes how easy tress were felled down by the machines.In addition, with this development, the villagers seemed to misunderstand that the state had transferred the rights to care and the rights to benefit from the forest to capitalists, while the new paradigm of economy greatly influenced the livelihoods of the people, gradually deviating them from their original plan of resource use. The adaptation to the new pattern of relationship enabled them to make use of resources in the Pra Forest in the new market. Such changes resulted in the changes of rights to access and withdrawal of the forest to "open access" and "private property". Open access covered deforestation, picking Pra seeds and forest plucking in other forms. Private property resulted in forest clearing for home settlements and gardening. In this period, the exploitation of the forest was in the form of turning forest resources into incomes. Under this change, conflicts in various dimensions occurred, ranging from the conflict in the structure of power of the community to manage the forest resources and that of the state and the capitalists, the conflicts between the villages and the state/capitalists, and the conflicts among the villagers themselves. With these conflicts, the villagers finally moved themselves from the structure of the community power to submission to the power of the market. That is, they would exploit the rights of access and withdrawal of the resources in the Pra Forest for ways to market these resources for their own benefits.In B.E. 2535, the government declared the area the National Park of Khao Nan and the Pra Forest became part of it. The newly-derived status of the area as the "national park" sped up development of the access rights into open access and an increase of overtaking some resources to be "private property". The withdrawal rights demonstrated more clearly in the marketing of resources. The villagers, subsequently, assume that the resources in the public land belonged to no one, meaning everyone has the rights to use it. The villagers are no longer afraid of the park officials because they have their own ways to avoid being arrested. The aggressive expansion of the free market has continued: the forest land has been sold to people on the lower areas and come more conflicts. The parks officials are indeed challenged of their legal authorities. The villagers have ignored the power of state. At the same time, another group of people, that is, land buyers who have social powers have become more powerful in support of the villagers. Facing this conflict, the villagers have tried to use various negotiating strategies such as hide-andseek forest clearing to avoid being spotted by the park officials. If caught, they would pretend to know nothing when the officials arrive as well as create a positive image for wider social support and beg for justice to their plight.As for solutions to the problems, the government must accept the co- management principles, that is, revive previous principles in use and realign them with the state principles in order for the coexistence of the forest and the people and only in this way would the state be able to preserve the forest areas.

Rare earth elements are not rare at all. They are essential for the hardware of contemporary life as we know it, every contemporary industrialized society depends on them, and there are no known alternatives. Yet the geography of their production is strange. In 2009, China accounted for 97% percent of global production, with the majority coming from the Bayan Obo mine operated by the state-owned enterprise Baotou Rare Earth Group on the southern Mongolian steppe. When gradually intensifying export quotas combined with a temporary halt of official exports in 2010, the rest of the world woke up to its near total dependence on China's rare earth monopoly. To address this crisis, a Brazilian firm (Companhia Brasileira de Metalurgia e Mineração) determined to capture rare earths from its niobium mine tailings in the state of Minas Gerais. Betting on the willingness of downstream firms to pay a premium for non-Chinese rare earths and subsidizing the effort with revenues from their niobium sales, they resolved to produce a steady output of rare earth oxides regardless of global market fluctuations. In 2012, CBMM successfully produced high-purity rare earth oxides. In 2013, the US, EU, and Japan won a WTO case against China's rare earth export quotas, restoring some semblance of the global status quo. But the story does not end there.Despite the relative ubiquity of rare earth elements, the abundance of known reserves near existing infrastructure networks, and the dissolution of the 2010 crisis, global prospecting efforts—with the aid of national governments and militaries—have targeted São Gabriel da Cachoeira in the high Amazon and the Western Lunar Highlands on the Moon as the next major points on the global rare earth frontier. This dissertation addresses the question: Given that rare earth elements are both abundant and vital, why is their production driven to so few, seemingly remote places? This question immediately begets three others: through what processes did China's Bayan Obo mine emerge as the single greatest source of rare earth elements worldwide? What provoked changes in China's policy and practice, and how did this precipitate spatial transformations elsewhere? And for what purposes are state, military, and private actors pursuing rare earth mining in São Gabriel da Cachoeira and the Moon? This dissertation proposes that the strange geography of the global rare earth frontier can be explained by world-historical shifts in the global division of toxic labor occurring within a context of state-building and geopolitical contest. It thus advances three claims. First, China's monopoly emerged through a convergence of long-term historical processes shaping northern China in the context of early 20th century imperialism, Cold War politics, and the epochal global economic shifts precipitated by Deng Xiaoping's 1978 reforms and the Reagan/Thatcher revolution. Second, the change in China's political economic priorities from export dominance to conservation has been stimulated by the acute environmental and epidemiological harms generated by rare earth production coupled with China's changing position in the global division of labor. Third, the contemporary geography of the global rare earth frontier is driven by more than geological determinism: although these sites are rich in rare earth elements, they are also historically contested regions and focal points for territorial agendas, for which a nationalist mandate for rare earth extraction provides a convenient pretext. These claims are based in a world-historical analysis of rare earth mining, and draw on political economy, political ecology, transnational theory to examine the convergence of Baotou, São Gabriel da Cachoeira, and the Moon in the production of the global rare earth frontier from the late 19th to early 21st century. I engage scientific literatures, archives, expert interviews and other perspectives across the Anglophone, Sinophone, and Lusophone world which were gathered in China, Brazil, and the United States during 2010 – 2014. The multilingual approach is central to this project. Multiple forms of knowledge are evident in the discourses on the rare earth frontier, and there is a symmetrical inaccessibility to the working rationales across language barriers even as these rationales interpenetrate to shape thought and action across global space. By examining the transnational historical production of the rare earth frontier across these sites, this dissertation refutes three dominant, yet persistent assumptions circulating in contemporary popular, policy, and academic discourse. First, that China's rare earth monopoly emerged because it possesses more rare earth elements than any other country; second, that China and Brazil possess mutually unintelligible histories precluding grounded relational analyses, and; third, that the Moon is a space of exception, beyond the purview of global economic activities and likewise, therefore, of critical concern.The purpose of this work is to demystify the contemporary global rare earth frontier. This work therefore has three aims. The first is to equip the reader with a deeper understanding of rare earth elements—the peculiarities of their geology and production, their political economic significance and their role in geopolitics far beyond what is available in the flurry of reports and opinion pieces generated since 2009. The second is to interrogate the historical origins and ongoing ramifications of the recent 'crisis' not as an exceptional circumstance, but as an episode that can be understood as emerging from and indicative of global development politics. The third and broadest aim is to move beyond entrenched global imaginaries that insist on the mutual unintelligibility of 'China' and 'the West,' or which seek to explain global changes as a series of unidirectional 'impacts' of one place on another, of 'center' on 'periphery,' (Hart 2002) as exemplified by much recent (but important) work concerned with China and Latin America (Gallagher 2008, García-Herrero 2007, Jenkins 2008, Rodriguez 2006). Although these sites differ in many important ways, each demonstrates a particular set of frontier attributes drawing especially from their respective histories at the margins of major imperial and territorial powers. These similarities help explain their convergence as points of extraction along the contemporary global rare earth frontier, while their differences account for the temporal and technological relationalities among these three sites in the global division of toxic labor.

Following a request from the European Commission (DG Health and Consumer Protection), the Panel on Animal Health and Welfare (AHAW) was requested for an opinion on porcine brucellosis (Brucella suis). B. suis consists of five biovars, however infection in pigs is caused by the first three biovars (biovars 1, 2, and 3). Infection of animals caused by biovars 1 and 3 differs from that caused by biovar 2 in the host specificity and geographical distribution. In the context of public health, biovar 2 is very rarely pathogenic for humans, whereas biovars 1 and 3 are highly pathogenic causing severe disease in human beings. There is currently no requirement for monitoring and surveillance of B. suis in domestic pigs or in wild life and therefore a lack of systematic epidemiologic data on porcine brucellosis in most MS. The occurrence of the disease is mainly sporadic (with the exception of certain areas where the characteristics of the production systems allow B. suis to be endemic). Within the EU, the epidemiological situation is varied, with some countries free of the disease, others reporting sporadic outbreaks and yet others reporting this disease as an emergent problem. Available epidemiological evidence shows that B. suis biovar 2 is the most common agent, but biovars 1 and 3 can also occur. Available evidence also suggests that currently the wild boar seems to remain the main source of infection for domestic pigs because several outbreaks of B. suis occurred in outdoor rearing systems, even on fenced premises, with the source of infection traced to contacts with wild boars. Transmission from wild boars to pigs is thought to be through the venereal route, as crossed piglets (striped) have been reported, at least in France and Portugal. Other routes might also be possible. Hares have been considered as a possible source of B. suis outbreaks in domestic pigs via swill feeding with offal from hunted infected hares. Some reported outbreaks have also been traced to the introduction of infected live animals originating from holdings where the diseases had not been detected. Based on the data of a systematic literature review, meta-analytical estimates of diagnostic sensitivity (Se) and specificity (Sp) of diagnostic tests for B. suis infection in pigs were generated. Highly sensitive and reasonably specific testing systems with the potential to combine more than one test are required for a rigorous detection and slaughter policy. Currently, serological testing in pigs is mainly useful to monitor the status of a herd but not reliable enough for single animals. Evidence from the systematic review suggests that indirect Enzyme-Linked ImmunoSorbent Assay (iELISA) and competitive Enzyme-Linked ImmunoSorbent Assay (cELISA) could be suitable candidates because of their high Se and Sp. However, the ELISA tests have not been fully evaluated and standardised for use in pigs. Primary reference standards are currently being developed. Formal procedures such as those implemented by the OIE should be considered for accreditation of candidate tests (e.g. iELISA and cELISA) for the purpose of control of B. suis in pigs. Little is known about the causes of false positive serological reactions to B. suis testing in pigs (FPSR), but it is believed that Yersinia enterocolitica O:9 could be the main factor of this problem. To address the FPSR issue it is important to improve the specificity of current diagnostic tests. Specific studies should also be conducted with the aim to identify the mechanisms of FPSR and to elaborate specific testing protocols to reduce this phenomenon. Further development of Brucellin-based tests should be encouraged since, in addition to bacteriology and molecular tools, these tests are the only confirmatory tests suitable to fully discriminate between true brucellosis infections and the infections caused by Y. enterocolitica O:9 or other cross-reacting bacteria. The risk factors (RF) for B. suis introduction and spreading into domestic pigs (in particular through contact with wildlife, and subsequent spread within the EU by trade in pigs and pig semen) have been identified and qualitatively assessed. The presence of infected wild boars and hares and the potential for exposure of outdoor pig holdings remain the most important risk factors in the currently affected areas. Exposure to infected wild boar would be influenced by the level of biosecurity resulting in variable level of either direct or indirect contact. In addition to the level of biosecurity, direct contact would also be influenced by the type of pig housing (e.g. outdoor vs indoor). Should the infection become established in holdings participating to intra-Community trade (e.g. outdoor, indoor, semen collection centres), the most important risk factor for wider spread within the EU would the infection remains unrecognised. This would create the potential for further spread within the EU either by direct or indirect contact. Movement of live pigs (mainly breeding pigs) and semen would be the most important risk factor given the intensive level of intra-Community trade. Indirect contact would mainly depend on mechanical transmission by people and shared contaminated equipment. The role of other means of transmission (e.g. rodents, scavenging birds) remains hypothetical. Awareness should be raised in the pig industry for indicative clinical signs of porcine brucellosis and to the additional risk posed by illegal swill feeding including offal from hares and wild boars. Semen production is well controlled by legal requirements related to the introduction of boars in semen collection centres, continuous monitoring of disease freedom and semen preparation requirements. However, transmission through this route could constitute an important way of disease dissemination. Boars kept in semen collection centres should continue to be selected and introduced from holdings that are epidemiologically proven as free from B. suis. Donors should continue to be serologically tested on holding of origin and in quarantine before being placed in the centre as well as on a regularly basis afterwards. The results indicate that the iELISA and cELISA could have the potential of being used for testing of boars for admission to semen collection centres and for compulsory routine testing.

The article is devoted to the problem of dangers faced by Ukrainians in the diaspora today. In addition to global challenges (environmental, energy, financial, resource, migration, etc.), there are specific threats to the spiritual and religious life of mankind, including and Ukrainians. Largescale secularization and dehumanization of the world is dangerous for everyone. People are at risk of losing their cultural, ethno-national and religious identity. These processes are especially threatening for those who living outside their country of origin, in the diaspora, where the connection with the motherland is rapidly lost. The author analyzes the problems experienced by the current Ukrainian diaspora. Among them are 1) historical problems that date back to the first wave of emigration, which were only exacerbated during the next, second, third and fourth; 2) psychological, which are determined by the nature of Ukrainians; 3) socio-economic, which determine the social status of members of the diaspora; 4) political, exacerbating the heterogeneity of the Ukrainian diaspora environment; 5) cultural, which on the one hand ensure the entry of Ukrainians into global culture, and on the other – preserve them as a relatively autonomous ethnic group. But there are also religious challenges associated with the general dereligiousization of modern society. Secularized Ukrainians who migrate from Ukraine, where they have not been attached to religious traditions and have been brought up in a non-religious spirit, do not become members of Ukrainian churches abroad. The number of Ukrainian believers in the diaspora is declining. In addition, Russian Orthodox structures operating outside Russia are actively dragging Ukrainians into their communities, eroding their own Ukrainian identity. Ukrainian Greek Catholics are being denationalized and deconfessionalized too. The Protestant churches, which unite religious emigrants from the former Soviet republics, are dominated by the Russian component, which influences the original ethno-religious identity of Ukrainians. Taken together, these dangers pose a question of existential importance to Ukrainians in the diaspora – whether Ukrainians in the diaspora will survive as a valuable part of global humanity, as an integral element of World's Ukrainians, as the citizens of the respective state and the members of civil society. ; Посвящено проблеме безопасности, сопряженной с угрозами, перед которыми стоят украинцы в диаспоре в наше время. Кроме глобальных вызовов (экологические, энергетические, финансовые, ресурсные, миграционные и т. д.), существуют угрозы для духовной и религиозной жизни человечества, в том числе и украинцев. Масштабная секуляризация и дегуманизация мира опасна для всех. Люди оказались перед угрозой потери своей культурной, этнонациональной и религиозной идентичности. Особенно эти процессы угрожающие для тех, кто проживает за пределами страны своего происхождения, в диаспоре, где связь с материнской землей стремительно теряется. Проанализированы проблемы, которые переживает нынешняя украинская диаспора, а именно: 1) исторические проблемы, тянущиеся со времен первой волны эмиграции и которые только усилены во время второй, третьей и четвертой; 2) психологические, зависящие от национального характера украинцев; 3) социально-экономические, определяющие общественный статус членов диаспоры; 4) политические, обостряющие неоднородность украинской диаспорной среды; 5) культурные, которые с одной стороны обеспечивают вхождение украинцев в глобальную культуру, а с другой – сохраняют их как относительно автономную этническую группу. Но существуют и религиозные вызовы, связанные с общей дерелигиезацией современного общества. Секуляризованные украинцы мигрируют из Украины, где они не были приобщены к религиозным традициям и воспитывались в соответствующем нерелигиозном духе, не становятся прихожанами украинских церквей за рубежом. Количество верующих украинцев в диаспоре постоянно уменьшается. Кроме того, русские православные структуры, действующие за рубежом России, активно перетягивают украинцев в свои общины, размывая собственно украинскую идентичность. Испытывают денационализацию и деконфесионализацию украинские греко-католики. В протестантских церквях, объединяющих верующих эмигрантов из бывших республик СССР, преобладает русский компонент, влияющий на первоначальную этнорелигиозную идентичность украинцев. Во всей своей совокупности эти опасности ставят перед украинцами диаспоры вопрос экзистенциального характера – выживут ли украинцы в диаспоре как самоценная часть глобального человечества, как составной элемент мирового украинства, как граждане соответствующего государства и члены гражданского общества. ; Присвячено проблемі небезпек, перед якими постають українці в діаспорі в наш час. Крім глобальних викликів (екологічні, енергетичні, фінансові, ресурсні, міграційні тощо), існують специфічні загрози для духовного і релігійного життя людства, зокрема й українців. Масштабна секуляризація і дегуманізація світу є небезпечною для всіх. Люди опинилися перед загрозою втрати своєї культурної, етнонаціональної і релігійної ідентичності. Особливо ці процеси загрозливі для тих, хто проживає за межами країни свого походження, у діаспорі, де зв'язок із материнською землею стрімко втрачається. Проаналізовано проблеми, що переживає нинішня українська діаспора, зокрема: 1) історичні проблеми, що тягнуться із часів першої хвилі еміграції, і були тільки підсиленні під час другої, третьої та четвертої; 2) психологічні, що визначаються характером українців; 3) соціально-економічні, що визначають суспільний статус членів діаспори; 4) політичні, що загострюють неоднорідність українського діаспорного середовища; 5) культурні, що, з одного боку, забезпечують входження українців до глобальної культури, а з іншого – зберігають їх як відносно автономну етнічну групу. Проте існують і релігійні виклики, що пов'язано із загальною дерелігієзацією сучасного суспільства. Секуляризовані українці, які мігрують з України, де вони не були долучені до релігійних традицій і виховувалися у відповідному нерелігійному дусі, не стають прихожанами українських церков за кордоном. Кількість віруючих українців у діаспорі зменшується. Крім того, російські православні структури, що діють за кордонами Росії, активно перетягують українців у свої громади, розмиваючи власне українську ідентичність. Зазнають денаціоналізації і деконфесіоналізації українські греко-католики. У протестантських церквах, що об'єднують віруючих емігрантів із колишніх республік СРСР, переважає російський компонент, що впливає на первісну етнорелігійну ідентичність українців. В усій своїй сукупності ці небезпеки ставлять перед українцями діаспори питання екзистенційної ваги – чи виживуть українці в діаспорі як самоцінна частина глобального людства, як складовий елемент світового українства, як громадяни відповідної держави і члени громадянського суспільства.

In this article, I carry out an epistemological analysis of the curricular guidelines that, in the last twenty years, normalized the area of scientific education for Primary Education Teachers (PEP), a career offered in teacher training institutions dependent on the Government of the Autonomous City of Buenos Aires (GCABA). First, I present the curricular documents for the PEP-GCABA. In the second place, I show that the guidelines established for our area of work by such documents have certain common epistemological bases. For this purpose: a) I establish some lines of continuity among the guidelines from the notions of science they present; and b) I identify the origin of such notions by tracing their specific genealogies, going back to certain currents and productions of the last decades of the 20th century framed in the Anglo-Saxon tradition in philosophy of science, one of the hegemonic traditions of the North Atlantic. Thirdly, by referring to some of the theoretical-critical currents and productions that in the first decades of the 21st century contributed to energize the epistemological field, I present certain contributions from peripheral critical theories; particularly, I refer to contributions that recognize the geopolitical and situated character of thought and knowledge and that critically assume the logics of the coloniality of power-knowledge. Fourthly, I analyze the guidelines presented by pointing out that, in epistemological terms, they are located within the theoretical framework offered by those Anglo-Saxon currents and productions, while at the same time they tend to make their own epistemological affiliation invisible. Likewise, I indicate that, although these documents affirm the situated character of science, they do not assume an enunciation from the peripheries or from colonial difference. In this sense, following the theoretical-critical contributions mentioned, I emphasize that the guidelines tend to be situated in a differential place of enunciation marked by coloniality. ; En este artículo me propongo desarrollar ciertas (re)escrituras epistemológicas críticas-periféricas sobre los lineamientos curriculares que, en los últimos veinte años, normativizaron el área de la educación científica para el Profesorado de Educación Primaria (PEP), carrera que se oferta en instituciones de formación docente dependientes del Gobierno de la Ciudad Autónoma de Buenos Aires (GCABA). En primer lugar, presento los distintos documentos curriculares para el PEP-GCABA producidos desde el año 2001. En segundo lugar, muestro que los lineamientos específicos establecidos para nuestra área de trabajo por dichos documentos poseen ciertas bases epistemológicas comunes. Para ello: a) establezco algunas líneas de continuidad entre los lineamientos a partir de las nociones y conceptualizaciones epistemológicas que presentan; e b) identifico la procedencia de dichas nociones y conceptualizaciones a partir del trazado de sus genealogías específicas, remontándome a ciertas corrientes y producciones contemporáneas predominantes de la tradición anglosajona en filosofía de la ciencia, una de las tradiciones hegemónicas del Atlántico Norte. En tercer lugar, presento ciertos aportes de las teorías críticas periféricas al campo filosófico o epistemológico latinoamericano; particularmente, refiero a contribuciones que reconocen el carácter geopolítico y situado del pensamiento y del conocimiento y que asumen críticamente las lógicas de la colonialidad del poder-saber. En cuarto lugar, desarrollo ciertas (re)escrituras epistemológicas críticas-periféricas sobre los lineamientos curriculares, resaltando que los mismos tienden a situarse en un lugar diferencial de enunciación marcado por la colonialidad del poder-saber. En este sentido, señalo que se trata de documentos elaborados en/desde las periferias, pero que no asumen una enunciación desde las periferias o desde la diferencia colonial. Al respecto, destaco que los lineamientos se ubican al interior del marco teórico ofrecido por aquellas corrientes y producciones anglosajonas contemporáneas, al mismo tiempo que invisibilizan dicha filiación filosófica o epistemológica y asumen una enunciación marcada por rastros de universalidad y deslocalización. ; Neste artigo proponho desenvolver certos (re)escritos epistemológicos críticos-periféricos sobre as orientações curriculares que, nos últimos vinte anos, padronizaram a área da educação científica para Professores do Ensino Primário (PEP), uma carreira oferecida em instituições de formação de professores dependentes do Governo da Cidade Autónoma de Buenos Aires (GCABA). Em primeiro lugar, apresento os diferentes documentos curriculares para o PEP-GCABA produzidos desde 2001. Em segundo lugar, mostro que as orientações específicas estabelecidas para a nossa área de trabalho por estes documentos têm certas bases epistemológicas comuns. Para este fim: a) estabeleço algumas linhas de continuidade entre as directrizes com base nas noções epistemológicas e conceptualizações que apresentam; e b) identifico a origem destas noções e conceptualizações com base no esboço das suas genealogias específicas, remontando a certas correntes e produções contemporâneas predominantes da tradição anglo-saxónica em filosofia da ciência, uma das tradições hegemónicas do Atlântico Norte. Em terceiro lugar, apresento algumas contribuições de teorias críticas periféricas para o campo filosófico ou epistemológico latino-americano; refiro-me particularmente a contribuições que reconhecem o carácter geopolítico e situado do pensamento e do conhecimento e que assumem criticamente a lógica da colonialidade do poder-conhecimento. Em quarto lugar, desenvolvo certos (re)escritos epistemológicos críticos-periféricos sobre directrizes curriculares, sublinhando que estes tendem a situar-se num lugar de enunciação diferencial marcado pela colonialidade do poder-conhecimento. Neste sentido, noto que se trata de documentos produzidos nas/periferias, mas que não assumem um enunciado das periferias ou da diferença colonial. A este respeito, gostaria de salientar que as directrizes se situam no quadro teórico oferecido por essas correntes e produções anglo-saxónicas contemporâneas, ao mesmo tempo que tornam invisível esta filiação filosófica ou epistemológica e assumem uma enunciação marcada por traços de universalidade e deslocalização.

The SPR appeared in the scientific literature at the beginning of the 1980s (Sherratt 1981; Id 1983) when Sherratt proposed a theoretical model to analyse the economic, political and social changes that occurred between the end of the Neolithic and the beginning of the Bronze Age in the Near East and in Europe: the driving force behind these changes is identified in a changed human approach to the exploitation of the animal resource, no longer bred to be slaughtered as a source of primary products (meat, skin and bone), but kept alive to provide a range of secondary products (milk, wool, labour power) that do not involve killing the animal. The force of Sherratt's model lies in the fact that the series of innovations he considered in the SPR model "spread and interacted with each other so as to cause major economic changes" (Sherratt 1981, p. 183). The change of scale in the exploitation of the animal resource results in a strong intensification of agricultural production and likewise of the mobility of goods and people: the animal-drawn plough makes sustainable the working of a series of lands previously considered too poor and thus leads to an expansion of the occupied areas. At the same time the adoption of the cart makes it possible to reach areas which were previously unreachable and to establish a system of long-range trade for specialised productions (wool, metallurgy.). The more rapid cycle of utilisation of agricultural areas also left sufficient fallow land available for pastoralism, which was becoming increasingly important. Phenomena that had begun to emerge in the earlier millennia with the domestication of plants and animals, only now underwent a leap in magnitude: and it is precisely this that characterises the SPR. It is therefore not a matter of investigating the places and times when milk, wool, ploughs, carts, etc. were first attested, rather of trying to understand how much the combination of these factors led to the appearance of those phenomena of deforestation, expansion of settled areas, increase in cultivated and grazed areas, increase in population that, in a continuous and constant biunivocal relationship with each other, allowed the rise of that system of production and exchange of products that "marked the birth of the kinds of society characteristic of modern Eurasia" (Sherratt 1983). Although we now know that the exploitation of milk certainly predates Sherratt's hypothesis, it is the formation of a "package of products" that we wish to focus on here. From this point of view, therefore, we agree with the idea of "big workshop, where the first experiments were carried out with those technologies and practices that were later perfected and used in the Bronze Age with a scale jump." (Rapi 2013, p. 526; English translation by the author). In this methodological framework, the origin and diffusion of the different "products" in Europe and Italy will be analysed, and an attempt will then be made to grasp the moment in which they became part of a system. ; La RPS appare nella letteratura scientifica agli inizi degli anni '80 del secolo scorso (Sherratt 1981; Id 1983) e con essa Sherratt propone un modello teorico per analizzare i cambiamenti a livello economico, politico e sociale che si possono riscontrare tra la fine del Neolitico e l'inizio dell'età del Bronzo nel Vicino Oriente ed in Europa: il motore di questi cambiamenti viene individuato in un mutato approccio dell'uomo nei confronti dello sfruttamento della risorsa animale, non più allevata per essere fonte di prodotti primari (carne, pelle e ossa) a seguito della macellazione, ma tenuta in vita per fornire una serie di prodotti secondari (latte, lana, forza lavoro) che non comportano l'uccisione dell'animale. La forza del modello di Sherratt risiede infatti nel sottolineare che la serie di innovazioni da lui considerate nel modello della RPS "spread and interacted with each other so as to cause major economic changes" (Sherratt 1981, p. 183). Il cambio di scala sullo sfruttamento della risorsa animale ha come risultato una forte intensificazione della produzione agricola e parimenti della mobilità di merci e di genti: l'aratro a trazione animale rende sostenibile la lavorazione di una serie di terreni prima considerati troppo poveri e porta quindi ad un'espansione delle aree occupate e allo stesso tempo l'adozione del carro o delle bestie da soma rende possibile raggiungere aree prima impensabili e stabilire un sistema di scambi su lungo raggio per produzioni specializzate (lana, metallurgia.). Il più rapido ciclo di utilizzo delle aree agricole lascia poi sufficienti aree di maggese a disposizione di una pastorizia che acquista sempre maggiore importanza. Fenomeni che si erano cominciati a delineare millenni prima con la domesticazione di piante ed animali ma che solo ora subiscono un salto di magnitudo: ed è proprio questo che caratterizza la RPS. Non si tratta quindi di indagare i luoghi ed i tempi della prima attestazione di latte, lana, aratro, carri, ecc., bensì si deve provare a capire quanto l'insieme di questi fattori porti alla comparsa di quei fenomeni di deforestazione, espansione delle aree insediate, aumento delle aree coltivate e adibite a pascolo, incremento della popolazione che, in continua e costante relazione biunivoca le une con le altre hanno permesso il sorgere di quel sistema di produzione e scambio di prodotti che "marked the birth of the kinds of society characteristic of modern Eurasia" (Sherratt 1983). Nonostante si sappia ora che lo sfruttamento del latte è di sicuro anteriore a quanto ipotizzato da Sherratt, è il formarsi di un "pacchetto di prodotti" che in questa sede si vuole porre al centro dell'attenzione. In quest'ottica quindi si concorda con l'idea di "pensare all'età del Rame come a una sorta di "grande officina" ove avvenne la prima sperimentazione di quelle tecnologie e di quelle pratiche che nell'età del Bronzo furono poi perfezionate e impiegate con un salto di scala" (Rapi 2013, p. 526). In questo quadro metodologico si analizzeranno l'origine e la diffusione dei diversi "prodotti" in Europa ed in Italia e si cercherà poi di cogliere il momento in cui questi entrino a sistema.

[spa] Esta tesis doctoral analiza la relación entre la organización de los cuidados y las politicas de austeridad enmarcadas en el capitalismo global. Se trata de conocer, por un lado, cómo las medidas económicas aplicadas en España tras el inicio de la crisis financiera actual han provocado cambios en esta organización que han afectado, especialmente, a las mujeres inmigradas. Por otro lado, se pretende enmarcar esta organización de los cuidados en el contexto de la globalización neoliberal, sosteniendo que ésta se apoya en una división sexual y clasista del trabajo de cuidados que traspasa las fronteras nacionales. Tal y como se desarrolla en el marco teórico y contextual de esta tesis, los efectos de las medidas de austeridad derivadas de la exigibilidad de la devolución de la deuda financiera se trasladan al aumento de la llamada deuda con las mujeres por el trabajo de cuidados. Un análisis feminista de las crisis permite revisar el concepto de deuda y poner en cuestionamiento los planteamientos androcentricos que invisibilizan la economia del cuidado. Esta tesis pretende realizar una critica feminista a las crisis y a las medidas de austeridad. Tambien busca hacer una aproximación al concepto de deuda con las mujeres por el trabajo de cuidados, especialmente, con las empleadas de hogar inmigradas y con las cuidadoras en origen. ; [eng] The general objective of this thesis is to analyse the relationship between changes in welfare policies in the current context of economic recession, the organisation of care and its impact on female Ecuadorian domestic workers in Spain, and the carers of these workers' families in Ecuador. The aim was to examine the way in which measures designed to ensure the repayment of financial debt, which are affecting the Spanish welfare system, are increasing the exploitation of care, particularly among the women who provide most care, including female migrant domestic workers. In short, the thesis was designed to study the links between neoliberal measures associated with patriarchal capitalism, and the undervaluation and increased precariousness of care work globally. The study of global care chains is strategically important for this purpose. It can reveal how the economic and social structure is supported by the sexual, international and class division of care work from a global perspective. It allows us to associate the continuum of the recession with the origin of these chains: the crisis of social reproduction in the South resulting from the application of Structural Adjustment Programmes, which led to an increase in emigration; the care crisis in the North, which attracts domestic workers from the South; and the current financial crisis. In addition, we can analyse the similarities between the Structural Adjustment Programmes implemented in the South and the austerity measures introduced in the North, and their effects on the increase in unpaid care work, which is mainly undertaken by women. The thesis establishes a theoretical framework on global care chains; a contextual framework on austerity measures taken since the start of the Spanish recession and their impact on the organisation of care; a contextual framework on the effects on care of the Structural Adjustment Programmes implemented in Ecuador after the external debt crisis; and a case study on the organisation of care relating to female Ecuadorian domestic workers in Barcelona, and the main carers of their children in Ecuador. The case study is based on an analysis of 20 semi-structured interviews undertaken in Barcelona and 9 in Ecuador. One of the research questions that guided the thesis was how changes in the welfare policies in response to the Spanish financial crisis could have augmented the privatisation of care, and particularly affected female immigrant domestic workers. Through an analysis of statistical sources, legal sources and the case study, it was found that the crisis and its political response have led to greater exploitation of care work in the home, which has had a major impact on female immigrant domestic workers in particular. To make the cuts, the government has relied on unpaid or very precarious care work in homes, which has boosted the privatisation of care. For example, domestic workers who participated in this research described how they had been particularly affected by nursery school cuts. Welfare strategies developed by families in a context of recession have also led to greater dedication to care tasks, which affects the time poverty of this group. Changes in consumption patterns as a result of situations of vulnerability that have been aggravated by the recession mean that more time and energy must be dedicated to preparing food, shopping and managing the family budget. The study of similarities between neoliberal measures and how they are associated with care in Ecuador and Spain revealed that, in both cases, neoliberal globalisation exploits care work. Neoliberal measures depend on this exploitation and exacerbate it. Although there are notable differences between these countries in terms of the association between neoliberal measures and care, this thesis shows how cuts and welfare strategies in both Ecuador and Spain have increased women's work load. Another important aspect of this thesis is related to the analysis of care in Ecuador of the children of the female Ecuadorian domestic workers who were interviewed. The emigration of domestic workers means that a series of arrangements must be made to ensure the welfare of children back at home. The emigrant mothers participate in these arrangements through kinship, communication or sending remittance. Family networks in Ecuador also participate, with the involvement of various members of the family, particularly women and girls, who care for the children. This analysis increased the visibility and value of transnational care carried out by domestic workers and carers in their home countries. In short, this thesis reveals how patriarchal capitalism at a global level exploits the work of carers and relegates it to the domestic sphere, with no pay or under precarious conditions. This study could contribute to highlighting the invisibility and lack of recognition of this work that is centred on sustaining life.

La Constitución Política de 1991 es, desde distintas áreas del estudio académico, un importante documento de análisis debido a que goza de numerosas particularidades, entre las cuales destaca su importancia en el desarrollo de los derechos individuales del ciudadano; un avance agrupado dentro del llamado movimiento del nuevo constitucionalismo de Iberoamérica. La Carta presenta un amplio desarrollo a los derechos humanos y el papel del estado como garante de los mismos. No obstante, estos avances legislativos no son inmunes ni a la controversia social, ni a la crítica académica ni a la interpretación judicial; fenómenos naturales de las democracias modernas. La principal característica de estos atributos es que son consustanciales de la condición humana, es decir, emergen de la naturaleza de los seres humanos y por eso existen, aunque la ley –en algunos casos- no los reconozca. No es necesario que el derecho positivo valide la existencia de estos derechos; la ausencia de pronunciamiento sobre los mismos no implica un desconocimiento de su validez. En la actualidad, tales atributos corren el continuo riesgo de perder su autonomía. Las imposiciones de toda índole, disfrazadas de sugerencias, afectan sobremanera la capacidad de reflexión y expresión, generando cada vez un mundo con menos posibilidades de determinarse de acuerdo con criterios propios. Un mundo donde los principios individuales se relegan a un segundo plano. Este es el marco de referencia que justifica abordar el estudio, no solo del aspecto positivo de la libertad de conciencia, mismo que se encuentra consagrado de manera expresa en el artículo 18 de la Constitución Política, sino aún más, del aspecto negativo de dicho derecho: la objeción de conciencia. Bajo el entendido de que es este último el mecanismo ideal que permite ejercer la libertad de conciencia a través de la negación que puede impetrar la persona de llevar a cabo determinada conducta que atenta contra sus creencias más internas y que son, al fin y al cabo, las que conllevan a su autodeterminación. La objeción de conciencia puede definirse como: "La objeción de conciencia es definida por Venditti como 'la resistencia a obedecer un imperativo jurídico invocando la existencia de un dictamen de conciencia que impide sujetarse al comportamiento prescrito'. (Suarez Pertierro, Gustavo. 1990)" Se asume, entonces, que la figura objeto de estudio se sustenta en el incumplimiento de un mandato legal o jurídico, cuando está en conflicto con las convicciones morales, filosóficas o religiosas de la persona y su efectivo cumplimiento acarrearía una traición a su fuero interno. En consecuencia, nos encontramos con un debate que se ha constituido como una constante en el desarrollo de la historia de la humanidad y desde el origen de las grandes civilizaciones de la antigüedad, esto es, el derecho al libre pensamiento, el cual engloba todo un universo de ideas complejas sustentadas desde la moral, el culto y conciencia personal hasta los fundamentos mismos de la ética y valores de una sociedad. La Constitución Política tipifica la protección a los anteriores como derechos fundamentales, pero estos derechos requieren de protecciones activas que atraviesen las normas escritas. ; The Political Constitution of 1991 is, from different areas of academic study, an important document of analysis because it enjoys numerous particularities, among which its importance in the development of the individual rights of the citizen stands out; an advance grouped within the so-called movement of the new constitutionalism of Latin America. The Charter presents a broad development of human rights and the role of the state as guarantor of them. However, these legislative advances are not immune to social controversy, academic criticism or judicial interpretation; natural phenomena of modern democracies. The main characteristic of these attributes is that they are consubstantial of the human condition, that is, they emerge from the nature of human beings and that is why they exist, although the law - in some cases - does not recognize them. It is not necessary that the positive law validates the existence of these rights; the absence of pronouncement on them does not imply a lack of knowledge of their validity. At present, such attributes run the continuous risk of losing their autonomy. The impositions of all kinds, disguised as suggestions, greatly affect the capacity for reflection and expression, each time generating a world with less chance of being determined according to their own criteria. A world where individual principles are relegated to the background. This is the frame of reference that justifies addressing the study, not only of the positive aspect of freedom of conscience, which is expressly enshrined in article 18 of the Political Constitution, but even more, of the negative aspect of said right. : conscientious objection. Under the understanding that the latter is the ideal mechanism that allows freedom of conscience to be exercised through the denial that can impede the person from carrying out certain behavior that undermines their innermost beliefs and that are, after all , which lead to their self-determination. Conscientious objection can be defined as: "Conscientious objection is defined by Venditti as' the resistance to obeying a legal imperative invoking the existence of a conscience opinion that prevents being subject to the prescribed behavior '. (Suarez Pertierro, Gustavo. 1990) "It is assumed, then, that the figure under study is based on the breach of a legal or legal mandate, when in conflict with the moral, philosophical or religious convictions of the person and its cash compliance would result in a betrayal of its internal jurisdiction. Consequently, we find a debate that has become a constant in the development of the history of humanity and since the origin of the great civilizations of antiquity, that is, the right to free thought, which encompasses a whole universe of complex ideas supported from morals, worship and personal awareness to the very foundations of the ethics and values of a society. The Political Constitution typifies the protection of the foregoing as fundamental rights, but these rights require active protections that cross written norms.

The article explores that the important scientific and practical task of the modern stage of development of world civilization is the globalization of all spheres of public life — cultural, information, and economic. One of the components of the globalization of the economy and one of the highest stages of globalization is the globalization of the world banking system. Banking sector is one of the key factors ensuring stable economic development of the country. Transparency, reliability, resistance to fіnansovo-economic shocks, a temple urіven depositor confidence — a characteristic feature of the banking systems of countries with developed economy.It is determined that banks should be considered as an important part of business, business world. They accumulate cash, provide loans, make cash settlements, issue currency trademarks, serve securities markets, and provide various economic services. Banking in the capital of the Central Bank of the European Union originated and developed on the basis of capital that brought interest. Even at the formation of the primitive communal system used usurious capital. Rich representatives of the top government were lending money. The development of usurious capital and initiated a banking business.In antiquity, there were some institutions that performed the functions of banks. In the historical literature, there are indications that the banks functioned in Poland, the Czech Republic. They performed a variety of operations — from commission operations for the purchase, sale and payment at the expense of customers to the issuance of loans and acted as guarantors and trustees in the implementation of various acts and transactions. Thus, the origins of modern banking can be seen in the activities of banks in the old days. It is noted that by the end of the XIX — early XX centuries. In the years of its existence, the multi-faceted credit system was formed. Public and private banks served, mainly, large borrowers; the credit needs of the small clients were managed by an extensive system of small loan applicants, whose resource base was formed, including at the expense of the State Bank. This model of functioning of the credit system is reflected and at the present stage of development, as the most suitable for the needs of all categories of borrowers, adequate to the transitional type of economy and which most contributes to the economic development of countries. ; Досліджено, що важливим науково-практичним завданням сучасного етапу розвитку світової цивілізації є глобалізація всіх сфер суспільного життя — культурної, інформаційної, економічної. Однією зі складових частин глобалізації економіки та одним з найвищих етапів глобалізації є глобалізація світової банківської системи. Бaʜкiвcькᴎй ceкᴛop — oдин iз ключoвᴎx чᴎʜʜᴎкiв зaбeзпeчeʜʜя cᴛaбiльʜoгo eкoʜoмiчʜoгo poзвᴎᴛку кpaїʜᴎ. Пpoзopicᴛь, ʜaдiйʜicᴛь, cᴛiйкicᴛь дo фiʜaʜcoвo-eкoʜoмiчʜᴎx пoᴛpяciʜь, вᴎcoкᴎй cᴛупiʜь дoвipᴎ вклaдʜᴎкiв — xapaкᴛepʜi oзʜaкᴎ бaʜкiвcькᴎx cᴎcᴛeм кpaїʜ iз poзвᴎʜeʜoю eкoʜoмiкoю.Визначено, що банки слід розглядати як важливу складову частину бізнесу, ділового світу. Вони акумулюють грошові кошти, надають кредити, проводять грошові розрахунки, емітують в обіг грошові знаки, обслуговують ринки цінних паперів, надають різноманітні економічні послуги. Банківська справа у кpaїʜах Цeʜᴛpaльʜo-Cxiдʜoї Євpoпᴎ виникла і розвивалася на базі капіталу, який приносив відсотки. Ще при формуванні первіснообщинного ладу використовувався лихварський капітал. Багаті представники верхівки влади давали в борг кошти. Розвиток лихварського капіталу і поклав початок банківської справи.У давнину існували деякі установи, які виконували функції банків. В історичній літературі є вказівки на те, що банки функціонували в Польщі, Чехії. Вони виконували різноманітні операції − від комісійних операцій із купівлі, продажу і платежів за рахунок клієнтів до видачі кредитів і виступали поручителями і довіреними особами при здійсненні різних актів і угод. Таким чином, витоки сучасної банківської справи можна бачити в діяльності банків в давнину. Відзначено, що до кінця XIX — початку XX століть у кpaїʜах Цeʜᴛpaльʜo-Cxiдʜoї Євpoпᴎ сформувалася багатоланкова кредитна система. Державні і приватні банки обслуговували в основному великих позичальників; кредитні потреби ж дрібних клієнтів були у віданні розгалуженої системи здобувачів дрібного кредиту, ресурсна база якої формувалася, у тому числі, за рахунок коштів державного банку. Модель функціонування кредитної системи знаходить своє відображення і на сучасному етапі розвитку як найбільш відповідна потребам усіх категорій позичальників, адекватна перехідному типу економіки і яка найбільше сприяє економічному розвиткові країн. ; Исследовано, что важной научно-практической задачей современного этапа развития мировой цивилизации является глобализация всех сфер общественной жизни — культурной, информационной, экономической. Одной из составных частей глобализации экономики и одним из самых высоких этапов глобализации является глобализация мировой банковской системы. Бaʜковский ceкᴛop является oдʜᴎм из ключевых факторов обеспечения стабильного экономического развития страны. Прозрачность, надежность, устойчивость к финансово-экономическим потрясениям, високий уровень доверия вкладчиков — характерные признаки банковских систем стран с развитой экономикой.Определено, что банки следует рассматривать как важную составную часть бизнеса, делового мира. Они аккумулируют денежные средства, предоставляют кредиты, проводят денежные расчеты, эмитируют в обращение денежные знаки, обслуживают рынки ценных бумаг, оказывают различные экономические услуги. Банковское дело в странах Цeʜᴛpaльʜo-Восточной Европы возникло и развивалось на базе капитала, который приносил проценты. Еще при формировании первобытнообщинного строя использовался ростовщический капитал. Богатые представители верхушки власти давали в долг деньги. Развитие ростовщического капитала и положило начало банковскому делу.В древности существовали некоторые учреждения, выполнявшие функции банков. В исторической литературе есть указания на то, что банки функционировали в Польше, Чехии. Они выполняли разнообразные операции — от комиссионных операций по покупке, продаже и платежей за счет клиентов до выдачи кредитов и выступали в качестве поручителей и доверенных лиц при осуществлении различных актов и соглашений. Таким образом, истоки современного банковского дела можно видеть в деятельности банков в древности. Отмечено, что к концу XIX — начала XX века в странах Цeʜᴛpaльʜo-Восточной Европы сформировалась многоуровненвая кредитная система. Государственные и частные банки обслуживали в основном крупных заемщиков; кредитные потребности же мелких клиентов были в ведении разветвленной системы соискателей мелкого кредита, ресурсная база которой формировалась, в том числе, за счет средств государственного банка. Данная модель функционирования кредитной системы находит свое отражение и на современном этапе развития как наиболее соответствующая потребностям всех категорий заемщиков, адекватная переходному типу экономики и которая наиболее способствует экономическому развитию стран.

[spa] El mundo cartaginés ha sido durante siglos víctima del menoscabo al que fue sometido por la tradición clásica grecorromana. Fruto de ello, la óptica transmitida por nuestras fuentes escritas llegó hasta nosotros ciertamente distorsionada. Entre los objetivos de nuestro trabajo, hemos tratado de desmitificar ciertos paradigmas que envolvían a los cartagineses en el estigma de la Punica fides. Y lo hemos hecho a partir del estudio de las interacciones diplomáticas entre los estos y otros estados, principalmente Roma. Asimismo, hemos tratado de desentrañar los procedimientos de la diplomacia desarrollada por la ciudad de Cartago en sus años de plenitud y ocaso, poniéndola en relación a otros modelos observados en la koiné mediterránea. . Contenido de la investigación La investigación parte del origen de la diplomacia púnica, que posee innegables conexiones con Tiro y su labor colonizadora de Occidente. A partir de aquí, hemos dividido el contenido de la praxis diplomática cartaginesa en: objetivos, gestión institucional y puesta en escena. Esta estructura nos ha permitido analizar el contrapeso de las instituciones cartaginesas ante la tradicional creencia de una preponderancia de los líderes militares, especialmente de aquellos miembros de la familia Barca. Asimismo, hemos tratado de identificar y distinguir los elementos propios de la propaganda anti-púnica, de aquellos que realmente podrían estar determinando una veracidad histórica. . Conclusión Partiendo de una metodología basada en un examen crítico de las fuentes literarias, pero sin descuidar las aportaciones de los testimonios epigráficos, numismáticos o arqueológicos, hemos estudiado tanto los contextos en los que se desarrollan las misiones diplomáticas cartaginesas, como el propio progreso de las mismas, aderezado en muchas ocasiones por automatismos esgrimidos por los historiadores antiguos. En cualquier caso, y pese a que damos por descontada la presencia de topoi, interpretationes, exempla y composiciones literarias de toda índole, podemos concluir que bajo el paradigma del legado púnico existe un sedimento de veracidad histórica, que es precisamente aquello hemos procurado sacar a la luz y amplificar en nuestro trabajo. ; [cat] El món cartaginès ha estat durant segles víctima del menyspreu de la tradició clàssica grecoromana. Fruit d'això, l'òptica transmesa per les nostres fonts escrites ha arribat fins a nosaltres certament distorsionada. Entre els objectius del nostre treball, hem tractat de desmitificar certs paradigmes que reduïen als cartaginesos a l'estigma de la Punica fides. Ho hem fet a partir d l'estudi de les interaccions diplomàtiques entre aquests i d,altres estats, principalment Roma. Així mateix, hem tractat de desemmascarar els procediments de la diplomàcia desenvolupada per la ciutat de Cartago en els seus anys de plenitud i ocàs, posant-la en relació amb altres models observats en la koiné mediterrània. . Contingut de la investigació La investigació parteix de l'origen de la diplomàcia púnica, que posseeix innegables connexions amb Tir i la seva tasca colonitzadora d'Occident. A partir d'aquí, hem dividit el contingut de la praxi diplomàtica cartaginesa en unas sèrie de branques: objectius, gestió institucional i escenificació. Aquesta estructura ens ha permès analitzar el contrapès de les institucions cartagineses davant la tradicional creença d'una preponderància dels líders militars, especialment si ens referim als membres de la família Barca. Així mateix, hem tractat d'identificar i distingir els elements propis de la propaganda anti-púnica d'aquells que realment podrien estar determinant una realitat històrica. . conclusió Partint d'una metodologia basada en un examen crític de les fonts literàries, però sense descuidar les aportacions dels testimonis epigràfics, numismàtics o arqueològics, hem estudiat tant els contextos en què es desenvolupen les missions diplomàtiques cartagineses, com el mateix progrés de les mateixes, amanit en moltes ocasions per automatismes esgrimits pels historiadors antics. En qualsevol cas, i malgrat que donem per descomptada la presència de topoi, interpretationes, exempla i composicions literàries de tota mena, podem concloure que sota el paradigma de l,ambaxador púnic existeix un sediment de veracitat històrica, que és precisament allò hem procurat treure a la llum i amplificar en el nostre treball. ; [eng] Carthaginian culture was harshly attacked by the Greco-Roman classical tradition. As a consequence, the image of the Punics that has reached us is a distortion of reality. Among the objectives of our work are: breaking the paradigms of the Carthaginians and the Punica fides; analyze this issue in diplomacy, mainly developed with Rome; study the diplomacy of Carthage and its relation with the existing praxis in the Mediterranean koiné. . Research content The research starts from the origin of Punic diplomacy, which has undeniable connections with Tire and its colonizing work in the West. From here, we have divided the content of the Carthaginian diplomatic praxis into: objectives, institutional management and staging. This structure has allowed us to analyze the counterweight of the Carthaginian institutions in the face of the traditional belief of a preponderance of the military leaders, especially those members of the Barca family. Likewise, we have tried to identify and distinguish the elements of anti-Punic propaganda from those that could really be determining a historical truth. . conclusion Starting from a methodology based on a critical examination of literary sources, but without neglecting the contributions of epigraphic, numismatic or archaeological testimonies, we have studied both the contexts in which the Carthaginian diplomatic missions are carried out, as well as their own progress, seasoned on many occasions by automatisms used by ancient historians. In any case, and despite the presence of topoi, interpretationes, exempla and literary compositions of all kinds, we can conclude that under the paradigm of the Punic ambassador there is a sediment of historical veracity, which is precisely what we have tried to extract light and amplify in this work.

A lo largo de la historia, el Ecuador ha experimentado en sus gobiernos, realidades económicas y sociales que de alguna manera han sido provocadas con la intención de regularizar situaciones vinculantes a diferentes grupos de poder, uno de los capítulos económicos más importantes vividos, inicia en el año 1999. Ecuador sorprendió al mundo en enero del 2000. Con la dolarización plena de su economía fue el primer país de América Latina que sacrificó oficialmente su moneda nacional e introdujo una moneda extranjera como de curso legal completo. Con esta decisión este país, cuya economía atravesaba por una depresión sin parangón en su historia republicana, que tenía quebrado su sistema financiero y que se encontraba en situación de moratoria de su deuda externa, se incorporó a la lista de 26 colonias o territorios que utilizaban en el año 2000 una moneda extranjera en todo el mundo. (Acosta, 2006) Con la finalidad de evidenciar otras realidades sociales y culturales, que surgieron durante la crisis económica que afectó al Ecuador en el año 1999, nace el proyecto transmedia, "Efecto 99", como una acción multidisciplinaria para establecer en la memoria nacional, el lado humano de todas las historias de superación, éxito, dolor, etc.; que casi nunca se contaron, o que no se han podido visibilizar en este tipo de formato. El proyecto al ser una narrativa transmedia se sustenta en diversas plataformas y formatos; una página web colaborativa con contenidos creados para enriquecer al proyecto; una serie web ficcionada basada en hechos reales y un cómic como pieza clave en la construcción de esta narrativa, desarrollado para que se adapte a varios formatos, tradicionales (impreso) y no tradicionales (digital, animado), explorando estos últimos formatos en nuevas plataformas y aplicaciones digitales para que su expansión e interacción con los usuarios pueda ser más directa y acorde a la convergencia de medios en la que estamos inmersos hoy en día. A través de un cómic se pueden contar historias que lleguen a ser el reflejo de la vida de una sociedad, que contengan algún concepto simbólico o fenómeno significativo que permee en la realidad social; con una carga estética, de origen popular y que inserte actitudes en los lectores. El desafío del proyecto fue crear un cómic en el que se cuente una historia tan sensible como la del feriado bancario, sin caer en clichés ni dramatismos sobre temas políticos que se han manoseado mucho acerca de la crisis. Es así que se decidió desarrollar una historia de ficción en la cual existe el trasfondo del feriado bancario, que es clave para la construcción y el desarrollo del personaje principal, resaltando la evolución del mismo en el transcurso del cómic, para lograr así que la historia llegue a los potenciales adoptadores iniciales del prototipo; sabiendo que son una subcultura con ciertas características especiales, a las cuales hay que prestar atención para el éxito del proyecto. ; Throughout history, Ecuador has experienced in its governments, economic and social realities that have somehow been provoked with the intention of regularizing binding situations to different groups of power, one of the most important economic chapters lived begins in the year 1999. Ecuador surprised the world in January 2000. With the full dollarization of its economy, it was the first country in Latin America that officially sacrificed its national currency and introduced a foreign currency as a full legal course. With this decision, this country, whose economy was going through a depression unparalleled in its republican history, which had a broken financial system and was in a state of moratorium on its external debt, was incorporated into the list of 26 colonies or territories that used in the year 2000 a foreign currency throughout the world. (Acosta, 2006) With the purpose of showing other social and cultural realities, which arose during the economic crisis that affected Ecuador in 1999, the transmedia project, "Efecto 99", rise as a multidisciplinary action to establish in the national memory, the human side of all the stories of overcoming, success, pain, etc.; that were almost never told, or that have not been visibilize in this type of format. As a transmedia narrative, this "Efecto 99" is based on various platforms and formats; a collaborative web page with content created to enrich the project; a fictional web series based on real events and a comic developed to be adapted into traditional (printed) and non-traditional (digital, animated) formats, exploring this last formats in new platforms and digital applications so that their expansion and interaction with users may be more direct and consistent with the convergence of media in which we are immersed today. Through a comic you can tell stories that become the reflection of the life in a society, that contain some symbolic concept or significant phenomenon wich permeates social reality; with an aesthetic look, a popular origin, that inserts attitudes in the readers. The challenge of the project was to create a comic that tells a story as sensitive as the "Feriado Bancario", without falling into clichés or dramatisms on political issues that have handled a lot about this crisis. So, we decided to develop a fictional story in which there is the background of the "Feriado Bancario", which is key to the construction and development of the main character, highlighting the evolution of it in the course of the comic, to achieve that the story reached the potential early adopters of the prototype; knowing that they are a subculture with certain and special characteristics that we must pay attention for the success of the project ; Guayaquil ; Maestría en Comunicación con Mención en Comunicación Digital