Suchergebnisse

The article studies the existing problems of ethics in relationship (problem aspects of interaction and cooperation) between a lawyer and a court in Ukraine, based on the present-day realities, namely: 1) the essence of the relationship "court – lawyer" in Ukraine is disclosed; 2) the norms of Ukrainian legislation, governing the issues of relationship (interaction and cooperation) between a lawyer and a court are analyzed; 3) the practical aspects of the relationship between a lawyer and a court are studied in order to identify the cases of inadmissible behavior of lawyers, as well as the court, in the process of administering justice in Ukraine.The conclusions are formulated and recommendations of a theoretical and practical nature are proposed, in particular the following:1. The lawyer and the judge, in accordance with the Constitution of Ukraine, have the constitutional obligation to protect the rights, freedoms and interests of citizens as a person and as a citizen. The Ukrainian legislator carries out the legal regulation of the relationship "court – lawyer", primarily based on the need to observe the principle of mutual respect between the court and the lawyer. Such an approach fully corresponds to international legal (European) standards of professional activity of both the court and lawyers, in particular in civil legal proceedings of Ukraine.2. Today, in Ukraine (based on the statistical data of the Center for Political and Legal Reforms), there are cases of inadmissible (unacceptable) behavior, of both judges and lawyers in legal proceedings. Manifestations of inadmissible conduct in the relationship "court – lawyer" are mostly (most often) carried out by the court, which, in particular, during the court sessions do not always adhere to the principle of equality of participants in the process.3. Based on the analysis of the dynamics of the number of crimes committed against lawyers in Ukraine (based on the materials of the National Association of Advocates of Ukraine) during 2013-2018 (under Articles 397-400 of the Criminal Code of Ukraine), it can be argued that there is a tendency to increase the number of cases concerning violation of the professional rights of lawyers and guarantees of advocacy in Ukraine, especially when considering and resolving civil cases.4. In order to increase the professional level of the lawyer's activity, it is necessary (on the basis of international legal standards of advocacy): 1) to ensure adequate protection of the professional rights of lawyers in Ukraine (as a necessary condition for advocacy); 2) to increase the level of responsibility of the lawyer to the client, for non-compliance with the rules of lawyer's ethics, etc. The presented aspects are the basis for improving the professional activity of a lawyer in the civil legal process of Ukraine. ; У статті досліджено існуючі проблеми етики взаємовідносин (проблемні аспекти взаємодії і співпраці) між адвокатом та судом в Україні, виходячи з реалій сьогодення. А саме – 1) розкрито сутність взаємовідносин "суд – адвокат" в Україні; 2) проаналізовано норми законодавства України, що регулюють питання взаємовідносин (взаємодії і співпраці) між адвокатом та судом; 3) досліджено практичні аспекти взаємовідносин між адвокатом і судом з метою виявлення випадків недопустимої (неприпустимої) поведінки адвокатів, а також суду, у процесі здійснення правосуддя в Україні.Сформульовано висновки і запропоновано рекомендації теоретичного та практичного характеру, зокрема такі:1. На адвоката, так і на суддю, відповідно до Конституції України, покладено конституційний обов'язок захищати права, свободи і інтереси людини і громадянина. Український законодавець здійснює правове регулювання взаємовідносин "суд – адвокат", насамперед, заснованих на необхідності дотримання принципу взаємної поваги між судом та адвокатом. Такий підхід повністю відповідає міжнародно-правовим (європейським) стандартам професійної діяльності як суду, так і адвокатів, зокрема у цивільному судочинстві України.2. Сьогодні в Україні (на основі статистичних даних Центру політико-правових реформ) існують випадки неприпустимої (неприйнятної) поведінки, як суддями, так і адвокатами в судових процесах. Прояви недопустимої поведінки у взаємовідносинах "суд – адвокат" переважно (найчастіше) відбуваються з боку суду, які, зокрема, під час проведення судових засідань не завжди дотримуються принципу рівноправності учасників процесу.3. За результатами аналізу динаміки чисельності злочинів щодо адвокатів в Україні (на основі матеріалів Національної асоціації адвокатів України) за 2013–2018 рр. (за ст.ст. 397–400 Кримінального кодексу України) можна стверджувати, що існує тенденція збільшення кількості випадків щодо порушення професійних прав адвокатів та гарантій адвокатської діяльності в Україні, особливо при розгляді і вирішенні цивільних справ.4. З метою підвищення професійного рівня діяльності адвоката необхідно (на основі міжнародно-правових стандартів адвокатської діяльності): 1) забезпечити належний захист професійних прав адвокатів в Україні (як необхідної умови адвокатської діяльності); 2) посилити рівень відповідальності адвоката перед клієнтом, за недотримання правил адвокатської етики тощо. Подані аспекти є основою для напрямів покращення професійної діяльності адвоката у цивільному судочинстві України.

Вackground. The rapid spread of modern biotechnologies causes public concern about their potential harmful effects on biodiversity, taking into account risks to human health. One of the important aspects of the implementation of the biosafety requirements is the observance of rules of labor protection.Оbjective. The aim of this work is to analyze the current status of biosafety through the implementation of requirements for labor protection in enterprises and research institutions of biotechnological (pharmaceutical) profile.Methods. The analysis and synthesis of information on biotechnological and regulatory aspects of biosafety and occupational safety are conducted.Results. The biological safety principle is to limit the spread or prevent spillage of infectious material from the lab environment, where various manipulations or maintaining in culture of the material are carried out. The main legal documents regulating the sphere of labor protection when working with BO in Ukraine: Law of Ukraine "On ensuring sanitary and epidemic wellbeing of population", Law of Ukraine "On state Biosafety system while creating, testing, transportation and use of genetically modified organisms", the State sanitary norms and rules on "Organization of work of laboratories in the material study, which contains pathogenic biological agents of I–IV groups of pathogenicity by molecular-genetic methods", State sanitary rules on "Safety of work with microorganisms of I–II groups of pathogenicity".Conclusions. An important element of access for the products of the biotechnology industry of Ukraine to the markets of developed countries is compliance with international recommendations on biosafety, which is not possible without the implementation of relevant international instruments in domestic legislation. The formation of the system approach to biosafety and occupational safety in enterprises and research institutions of biotechnological profile will contribute to the development and implementation of regulations (licensing conditions) for the implementation of the activities with genetically modified organisms. ; Проблематика. Стремительное распространение современных биотехнологий вызывает обеспокоенность общественности относительно их потенциального вредного воздействия на биологическое разнообразие, а также относительно рисков для здоровья человека. Одним из важных аспектов реализации требований биобезопасности является соблюдение правил охраны труда.Цель исследования. Анализ современного состояния обеспечения биобезопасности через реализацию требований к охране труда на предприятиях и в научно-исследовательских учреждениях биотехнологического (фармацевтического) профиля.Методика реализации. Проведены анализ и обобщение информации о биотехнологических и нормативно-правовых аспектах биобезопасности и охраны труда.Результаты исследования. Принцип биологической безопасности – это ограничение распространения или предотвращение утечки инфекционного материала из лабораторной среды, где с ним проводят различные манипуляции или поддерживают в культуре. Основные нормативно-правовые документы, регулирующие сферу охраны труда при работе с БО в Украине: законы "Об обеспечении санитарного и эпидемического благополучия населения", "О государственной системе биобезопасности при создании, испытании, транспортировке и использовании генетически модифицированных организмов", Государственные санитарные нормы и правила "Организация работы лабораторий при исследовании материала, который содержит биологические патогенные агенты I–IV групп патогенности молекулярно-генетическими методами", Государственные санитарные правила "Безопасность работы с микроорганизмами І–ІІ групп патогенности".Выводы.Важным элементом доступа продукции биотехнологической отрасли Украины на рынки развитых стран является соблюдение международных рекомендаций по биобезопасности, что невозможно без имплементации соответствующих международных документов в отечественное законодательство. Формированию системного подхода в области биобезопасности и охраны труда на предприятиях и в научно-исследовательских учреждениях биотехнологического профиля будет способствовать разработка и внедрение правил (лицензионных условий) осуществления деятельности с генетически модифицированными организмами. ; Проблематика. Швидке поширення сучасних біотехнологій викликає стурбованість громадськості щодо її потенційної шкідливої дії на біологічне різноманіття, а також щодо ризиків для здоров'я людини. Одним із важливих аспектів реалізації вимог біобезпеки є додержання правил охорони праці.Мета дослідження. Аналіз сучасного стану забезпечення біобезпеки через реалізацію вимог до охорони праці на підприємствах й у науково-дослідних установах біотехнологічного (фармацевтичного) профілю.Методика реалізації. Проведено аналіз і узагальнення інформації щодо біотехнологічних і нормативно-правових аспектів біобезпеки та охорони праці.Результати дослідження. Принцип біологічної безпеки – це обмеження поширення або запобігання витоку інфекційного матеріалу з лабораторного середовища, де з ним проводять різні маніпуляції або підтримують в культурі. Основними нормативно-правовими документами, що регулюють сферу охорони праці при роботі з біологічним об'єктом в Україні, є: закони України "Про забезпечення санітарного та епідемічного благополуччя населення", "Про державну систему біобезпеки при створенні, випробуванні, транспортуванні та використанні генетично модифікованих організмів", Державні санітарні норми і правила "Організація роботи лабораторій при дослідженні матеріалу, що містить біологічні патогенні агенти I–IV груп патогенності молекулярно-генетичними методами", Державні санітарні правила "Безпека роботи з мікроорганізмами І–ІІ груп патогенності".Висновки. Важливим елементом доступу продукції біотехнологічної галузі України на ринки розвинених країн є дотримання міжнародних рекомендацій щодо біобезпеки, що не можливо без імплементації відповідних міжнародних документів у вітчизняне законодавство. Формуванню системного підходу в галузі біобезпеки та охорони праці на підприємствах та у науково-дослідних установах біотехнологічного профілю сприятиме розробка та впровадження правил (ліцензійних умов) провадження діяльності з генетично модифікованими організмами.

ÖZET Bu çalışmanın temel amacı Türkiye-AB ilişkilerinde egemenlik sorunu konusunda, uluslararası ilişkiler bağlamında, tarihî gelişim içerisinde teorik tartışmalar yapmaktır. Egemenlik, ulus devlet siyasasının iç ve dış ilişkilerini, ekonomik, hukuki ve sosyal düzenini şekillendiren bir normdur. Egemenlik, ulus devlet sonrası süreçte, ulusüstü AB yapılanmasıyla da gündeme gelmiştir.Egemenlik kavramının teorik olarak çeşitli tanımları yapılmıştır. Westphalia sonrası ortaya çıkan egemen Avrupa devlet sisteminin hukuki, siyasal, ekonomik ve sosyal yapısı, egemenlik boyutunda incelenmiştir. Modern uluslararası ilişkilerin gelişiminde önemli bir yer tutan egemenlik, Avrupa ulus devletler düzenini kuran önemli siyasi olay ve gelişmeler de tartışılır.Savaş sonrası Avrupa'sında Westphalia egemen ulus devlet sisteminin yerini almakta olan AB; siyasal, ekonomik ve sosyal açıdan egemenlik bağlamında ele alınır. Ekonomik entegrasyon, siyasal birlik, ulusal egemenlik, federalizm, konfederalizm vb. AB'yi betimleyen siyasaların egemenlik söylemi vurgulanır. Ayrıca AB kurumlarının tarihî gelişimi, anayasal yapılanma ve egemenlik tartışmalarını sürdürür. Türkiye'nin egemenlik anlayışı tarihî gelişim içinde ele alınmıştır. Türkiye, Kurtuluş Savaşı'yla birlikte, Batılılaşmak ve çağdaşlaşmak, muasır medeniyet seviyesine ulaşmak için siyasal, ekonomik ve kültürel reformlar yaparak Avrupa modern egemen ulus devlet sistemine geçmiştir. Türkiye, geleneksel toplum yapısını modern, seküler, çağdaş, homojen bir ulus devlet siyasasına dönüştürürken; etnik, dinî, bölgesel ve ideolojik temelli sorunlar da ortaya çıkar. Türkiye'de siyasal iktidarı ele geçiren partilerin iktidarları süresince kendi çoğunlukçu ve fraksiyoncu millî egemenlik anlayışına, Rousseau'cu anlamda genel iradeyi temsil ettiğini düşünerek, Hobbes'cu mutlak devlet egemenliğini topluma ulusal egemenlik anlayışı gibi sunması bu partilerin Lock'cu anlamda demokratik, sivil, sınırlı ve çoğulcu bir toplumsal egemenlik anlayışını yansıtmasına engel olmaktadır. Dolayısıyla, Türkiye'nin siyasal sisteminin demokratik süreci darbeli olmakta, jeopolitik konumu da istikrarsızlığı kolaylaştırmaktadır.Türkiye AB ilişkilerinde egemenlik bağlamında; siyasal, ekonomik, sosyal, hukuk ve güvenlik sorunları vardır. Türkiye, AB'ye tam üyelik sürecinde, AB üyelerinden ve aday ülkelerden farklı olarak kendine has güçlü bir ulus devlet egemenlik kurgusuna sahiptir. Bu güçlü devlet egemenliği anlayışı; jeopolitik, siyasi, ekonomik, sosyal ve kültürel açıdan Türkiye'nin-AB ile ortak bir egemenlik inşasını, paylaşımını, transferini güçleştirmektedir. Fakat Türkiye bu sorunları tek tek çözmektedir.Anahtar Kelimeler: Egemenlik, Ulus Devlet, Federalizm, Devletler Sistemi, Avrupa Birliği, Türkiye. ABSTRACTThe basic purpose of this dissertation is to discuss the sovereignty matter, between Turkey and European Union relations within theoretical framework of the International relations discipline in the process of historical context. The sovereignty is a norm which shapes the polity of the nation state in terms of its internal, external relations, economy, politic, legal and social order. But, by the post-nation state process, supranational EU structure also brought that issue back into agenda.There has been done various theoretical definitions of the sovereignty notions. After the Westphalia there emerged the sovereign European state system which has political, economical, legal and social order, had been analysied within the sovereignty perspectives. The sovereignty which developed the modern international relations by constructing modern nation state order, also comprises the important political aspects of the European historical events, too. In the postwar Europe, the EU replaces the Westphalian sovereign nation state system by political, economical, legal and social direction in the context of sovereignty dimension. To explicate the sovereignty expression of the EU's polity, it also confines economic integration, political union, national sovereignty, federalizm, confederalizm, regionalism, transtate alternative variations. Moreover, the EU institutions' historical imrovements contributes in sovereignty issue in the extent of constitutionalization, democracy, legitimacy, authority and responsibility.Turkey's sovereignty comprehension, are investigated in the historical content. By the Independence War, Turkey aimed to adopt European sovereign nation state system by realizing political, economic, legal and cultural reforms in the name of westernization, civilization and modernization.Turkey transformed successfully its traditional social structure into modern, secular, contemporaneous, homojen republican sovereign nation state polity; Though it encountered with ethnic, religious, regional and ideological resistances. Whereas, Turkey experiences with some difficulties of the multiparty system in the process of democratization in which parties forms the government impose its majoritarian sovereign perceptions. In addition, they implement or introduce their sovereignty conception as Rousseau's "general will" in the sense of Hobbes' absolute state sovereignty so as to national sovereignty rules over society. Thus, this type of conception prevents the government from applying, limited, civil, democratic, pluralist social sovereignty principles in the logic of Locke. In a nutshell, Turkey's democratic process is interrupted oftenly and geopolitical power structures also leads to instability.There are some problematic issues. Those are politic, economic, legal, social and security matters in the context of sovereignty, between Turkey-EU relations.Turkey owns a very strong nation state sovereignty script, in the process of fullmembership into EU, apart from the EU members and other candidate countries. Eventhough there are various geopolitical order alternatives, quests and troubles; Turkey that conciously tries to overcome those barriers one by one so as to share sovereignty with the EU.Keywords: Sovereignty, Nation State, Federalizm, System of States, European Union, Turkey.

Baznīca un vardarbība: funkcionāla modeļa meklējumi. Maģistra darbs savu idejisko un praktisko ievirzi guvis balstoties uz manu pieredzi, trīs gadus strādājot par audzinātāju Centrā pret vardarbību "Dardedze" ar novārtā pamestiem un no emocionālas, fiziskas vai seksuālas vardarbības cietušiem bērniem un viņu vecākiem, kā arī nepilnos divos gadus gūto pieredzi strādājot par kapelānu NBS Kājinieku skolā. "Nav iespējams aptvert tās visas garīgās krīzes, no kurām cilvēkus ir izvedusi ticība. Tā nepieviļ pat tur, kur viss ir pievīlis, visam pienācis gals: tā paceļ kritušo, iedveš cerību vīlušamies, stiprina cīnītāju, paceļ pazemoto." Ticība, kā pamats attiecībām, kurām nav nekāda cita pamata to atjaunošanai, ir vienīgais drošais ceļš, kas ved pie patiesības, kas izved brīvībā no savu vēlmju un otra pakļaušanas verdzības. To teorētiski atklāju ar salīdzinošo metodi, risinot domātāju Emanuēla Levinas un Renē Žerarda izvirzītos apgalvojumus un piedāvātos risinājumus vardarbības problēmai. Baznīcas loma mūsdienu pasaulē ir saistīta ar patieso realitāti, kura to ietekmē. Vardarbība ir stabila parādība, tā mūs vairs ne ar ko nevar pārsteigt. Tā ir iesakņojusies cilvēkos un to pieņem kā sabiedrības normu, pie kuras īpaši strādā valstu un starpvalstu institūcijas, lai noteiktu un regulētu tās devianta robežu. Savā maģistra darbā es sasniedzu izvirzīto mērķi: parādīt baznīcas pārstāvju – kapelānu lomu NBS struktūrā, īpaši parādot tā nozīmi starptautiskajās misijās. To es veicu, atklājot praktisku modeli, kā baznīca var dot savu ieguldījumu vardarbības problēmas risināšanā, deleģējot kapelānus kā oficiālus baznības pārstāvjus darbam Latvijas NBS, to struktūrvienību un apakšvienību vadības grupās, esot iesaistītiem darbā ar personālu, lai rūpētos par tā reliģisko, garīgo un morālo aprūpi. Baznīca vienīgā spēj sniegt pietiekamu izskaidrojumu vardarbības problēmai, atklājot tās cēloņus, kas sakņojas iedzimtā grēka stāstā un izpaužas grēkāža mehānisma darbībā, ko ir iespējams likvidēt, atklājot mimētikas teoriju un personīgā dzīvē absorbējot Kristus Pasijas notikumu. Mana darba tēze: Baznīcai ir būtiska loma vardarbības problēmas risināšanā: kapelāna darbs – ekskluzīva iespēja mūsdienās, apstiprinās V.Lauciņa veiktajā pētījuma par Kristīgās mācības lomu starptautiskajās militārajās operācijās dienošo karavīru skatījumā, aptaujājot tajās dienošos karavīrus, ka arī mana personīga pieredzē, strādajot ar Kājinieku skolas personālu. ; Church and Violence: In search of a functional model. For my Master's work, I received my ideas and practical view from my experience which follows: working three years as a care-taker at the Center Against Abuse "Dardedze" working with children who had suffered from neglect, emotional, physical and sexual abuse, as well as their mothers who in many cases, were also victims of abuse. Also from expierienc working one-and-a-half years as a chaplain at the N.B.S. School of Footsoldiers. It's impossible to grasp all of, the spiritual crisis through which faith has succesfully carried them through. Faith doesn't disappoint even when everything has disappointed and everything has come to an end: it lifts up the fallen, breathes in hope to the disappointed, strengthens the warrior, and lifts up the meek. Faith, as the foundation for relationships, which have no other hope for restoration, is the only safe road that leads to truth, which leads to freedom from self-will and slavery of anothers'. I theoretically present this with the method of comparison, solving thinkers Emanuel Levin's and Rene Gerard's conclusions and offered solutions for the problem of abuse. The role of the church in today's world is connected with reality which it effects. Abuse is a common element of society which can't surprise us with anything anymore. It is rooted into people, and has come to be accepted as a norm in society on which focuses state and outer-state institutions in order to control and regulate its deviated boundaries. On my Master's project I gained my desired goal: to show a representative of the church- the role of a chaplain in the structure of the N.B.S., especially showing his meaning in international missions. I accomplished this by revealing a practical model, how it is possible to give what you have gained to the church in abuse-solving by delegating chaplains as official church representatives in the Latvian N.B.S. to structure regiments and under regiments in leadership groups being involved with personell in order to be taking care of their religious, spiritual, and moral well-being. Only the church can give enough insight into the abuse problem revealing its causes, which root in the adopted sin-nature, which people are born with, story, and shows itself in the scapegoat, mechanism activity, which is able to be liquidated by revealing the mimetic theory, and absorbing the Passion of Christ happening in the personal life. My projects thesis: The church has an actual role in the in the solving of the problem of abuse.The work of a chaplain- an exclusive opportunity in today's world, will support V. Laucina performed study about The role of Christian education in international military operations in the views of serving soldiers, interviewing serving soldiers, including my own personal experience working with the Footsoldier's School personell.

Bauaufträge gegen Bares, Stimmabgabe nach Bezahlung, Rechtssprechung nach dem höchsten Angebot – es gibt nun einmal Angebote, die kein vernünftiger Mensch ausschlagen kann. Warum sich also komplizierten Regelungen und unvorteilhaften Verfahren unterwerfen, wenn eine kleine Spende zur richtigen Zeit den gewünschten Effekt viel schneller und unkomplizierter erzielt? Warum sich mit einer öffentlichen Moral quälen, wenn Käuflichkeit als selbstverständlicher Sachverhalt sich täglich aufs Neue erweist? Was alle tun, kann auch nicht strafbar sein. Schließlich gibt es Versicherungs- und Steuerbetrug als Volkssport auch nicht erst seit heute, und ist dieser nicht ein Kavaliersdelikt im Vergleich zur Selbstbedienungsmentalität der Eliten? Folgt man dieser Logik, dann ergibt sich ganz schnell das Bild einer durch und durch korrupten Gesellschaft, in der Schmieren und Schmierenlassen zur alltäglichen Praxis geworden zu sein scheint. Tatsache ist, dass Korruption in Deutschland mittlerweile weiter verbreitet und tiefer verwurzelt ist, als bisher angenommen wurde oder man sich selbst zugestehen wollte. Nach Beispielen muss man demzufolge auch nicht lange suchen: Barschecks und Sachzuwendungen an den Baureferenten verschaffen Konzessionen und Genehmigungen an den öffentlichen Vergabeverfahren vorbei, pekuniäre Handsalben an die Aufsichtsbehörde verhindern hohe Gebührenbescheide und strenge Ordnungskontrollen, fingierte Beraterverträge zwischen hohen politischen Repräsentanten und namhaften Medienhändlern verschaffen ein lukratives Zweiteinkommen. Von "A" wie Abgeordneter bis "Z" wie Zulassungsverfahren - Korruption lohnt sich und ist im Wesentlichen eine Frage des Preises. Am Buffet der Selbstbereicherung bedienen sich der Sachbearbeiter in der Ausländerbehörde, der Oberbürgermeister der Stadt Wuppertal, Wirtschaftsminister und Kanzler ebenso wie Vorstände, einfache Unternehmer und selbständige Journalisten. Auch die jüngere deutsche Geschichte kann einiges an Anschauungsmaterial zu dieser "chronique scandaleuse" beitragen: Der Bundesliga-Wettskandal, die illegale Spürpanzerlieferung an Saudi-Arabien, die Parteispendenaffäre der CDU, Flick, Neue Heimat und so weiter und so fort. Korruption kennt viel Namen und noch mehr Personen, die sich bereitwillig an ihr beteiligen oder beteiligt haben. Dabei verkennen die Betroffenen meist, dass es sich bei dieser unvollständigen Reihung von mehr oder weniger schweren Skandalen, nicht mehr nur um bloße Einzelfälle abweichenden Verhaltens einer Minderheit von Volkvertretern handelt, die ihr persönliches Wohl nicht von dem des Staates unterscheiden können oder wollen. Egal ob von Bestechung, Ämterpatronage, Filz oder Lobbyismus die Rede ist; es sind alles Stichworte für ein und dasselbe Phänomen, das nicht erst mit Inkrafttreten des Grundgesetzes bekannt geworden ist, geschweige denn, seitdem einen regelrechten Boom erleben würde. Korruption gab es und wird es immer geben, solange sich Menschen in sozialen Gebilden zusammenschließen und sich gemeinsamen Regeln unterwerfen. Nur der Grad ihrer Verbreitung und der Effekt den sie auf die Verfasstheit einer Gesellschaft hat, wird ständigem Wandel unterworfen bleiben. So ist das Thema Korruption in Deutschland aktuell wie eh und je. Dennoch kommt es nur selten auf die politische Agenda und scheint in der gesellschaftlichen Diskussion nur am Rande eine Rolle zu spielen. Schmiergeldsumpf, Bananenrepublik, Bakschisch-Mentalität – allein an der Wahl des Vokabulars, das hinlänglich Verwendung findet, um derlei illegaler Praktiken und manipulativer Techniken zu beschreiben, wird deutlich, wie wenig die Bereitschaft da ist, das Problem als solches für die Bundesrepublik anzuerkennen. Stattdessen scheint es sich um ein Phänomen zu handeln, welches immer die Anderen anzugehen scheint – die andere Partei, das andere System, oder der andere Staat. So wird Korruption zumeist in südlichen Ländern verortet oder schlichtweg verdrängt. Dass allein hierzulande der öffentlichen Hand Schäden in Höhe von 6,8 Milliarden Euro per annum durch Wirtschaftsstraftaten entstehen, dürfte den wenigsten bekannt sein. Genauso, dass nach Schätzungen der Weltbank im internationalen Geschäftsverkehr jedes Jahr bis zu 70 Milliarden Euro in das Korruptionsgeschäft investiert werden, was wiederum Rückwirkungen auf den deutschen Markt hat. Durch die zunehmende Globalisierung der Märkte, werden auch die jeweiligen Gesellschaften inklusive ihrer Sozial-, Wirtschafts- und Rechtssysteme immer komplexer und immer stärker international verwoben. Gleichzeitig aber werden sie auch weniger durchschaubar. Auf der anderen Seite ist das Thema Korruption äußerst skandalträchtig und einschaltquoten- bzw. auflagensteigernd, weshalb ihr die Medien auch einen prominenten Platz einräumen. So kommt es hin und wieder zu teils empörten, teils resignierten, teils zornigen Reaktionen aus den Reihen der Bevölkerung im Hinblick auf die gepflegte Art der Selbstbereicherung des politischen Personals. Das ist in einer offenen Gesellschaft auch nichts Ungewöhnliches und deutet zumindest auf die Bereitschaft zur Verarbeitung derlei Regelverstöße hin. Die Empörung der Betrogenen und ein diffuses Ohnmachtsgefühl provoziert das kollektive Gerechtigkeitsempfinden. Dabei ist gerade die Ausübung öffentlicher Ämter und Mandate zum privaten Vorteil der kollektiven Idealisierung moralischer Werte besonders zuwider, zumal es auch noch ein Zeugnis der Ungleichheit ist. Moralisch-normativ ist auch großteils die Art der Beurteilung von Korruption. Sie gilt als besonders verwerflich oder spiegelt eine "Pathologie der Politik" (Carl J. Friedrich) wider. Bei der Bewertung korrupter Institutionen geht es aber auch, wie eingangs erwähnt, um die ganz eigene Bereitschaft zur Wahrnehmung eines persönlichen Vorteils. Von diesem wird sich – auch unter Strapazierung des eigenen Gewissens – kaum einer ausnehmen können. Mit der Beschädigung öffentlicher Belange und der Verletzung von Normen sollte dies jedoch nicht verwechselt werden. Keine Korruption des Staates ohne Verfall individueller Moral, da Institutionen sich nun mal nicht selbst korrumpieren können. Inwieweit persönliche Wert- und Unwertvorstellungen den Verfall des Staates fördern, wird daher eine der zentralen Fragen sein, die im Folgenden zu beantworten ist. Das Vorhaben dieser Arbeit ist somit schon grob umrissen; Korruption findet statt im Spannungsfeld zwischen dem Gemeinwohl und dem Prinzip der individuellen Nutzenmaximierung auf Kosten dieses Gemeinwohls. Dies gilt es anhand ihrer politischen, sozialen, ökonomischen und kulturellen Ursachen zu untersuchen. Es geht dabei ausschließlich um Korruption auf bundesdeutschem Terrain sowie ihrer Formen, Strukturen und Verbreitung hierzulande. Auch soll der Schwerpunkt stärker auf der besonderen Form der politischen Korruption liegen, als auf ähnlich gearteten Delikten in der freien Wirtschaft. Diese beiden Bereiche sind trennscharf voneinander zu unterscheiden, obwohl sie sich gegenseitig durchdringen und die Art der Delikte durchaus übertragbar ist. Im Mittelpunkt der Betrachtung steht allerdings die Frage, wie und mit welchen Mitteln effektiv gegen Korruption vorgegangen werden kann. Dazu ist es sinnvoll, den umfangreichen Katalog an Korruptionsbekämpfungsvorschlägen zu sichten und ihn kritisch auf sein Potential hin zu untersuchen. Politisch und rechtlich sinnvolle Maßnahmen müssen getrennt werden von Scheinaktivitäten, bloßen Bekenntnissen und blindem Aktionismus. Immerhin: die Bedrohung, welche von der Korruption für den Staat ausgeht, wird von Seiten der Verantwortlichen nicht länger ignoriert. Die Bereitschaft, sich mit dem Phänomen zuweilen auch selbstkritisch im Hinblick auf die eigenen Versäumnisse auseinander zusetzen, ist da. Es gilt nur noch die Aussage von John Adams, dem zweiten Präsidenten der Vereinigten Staaten, zu widerlegen, der im Bezug auf die schicksalhafte Neigung von Demokratien, sich selbst zu zerstören, feststellte: "Eine Demokratie währt niemals lange. Sie zehrt sich auf, erschöpft sich und mordet sich selbst. Bisher gab es noch keine Demokratie, die keinen Selbstmord beging." Trotz der Vehemenz, die der Thematik potentiell inhärent sein kann, wird Korruption dennoch reihenweise als Kavaliersdelikt verharmlost und in seiner Breitenwirkung unterschätzt. Eindeutig scheint allerdings: Korruption wird es immer geben, da das (illegale) Streben nach privater Gewinnmaximierung ein dem menschlichen Wesen inhärenter Charakterzug ist. Abhängig vom jeweiligen Individuum wird jener natürlichen Neigung mehr oder weniger skrupellos nachgegeben. An dieser menschlichen Grundkonstante kann politikwissenschaftliches Forschungsinteresse auch nicht einsetzen; jedoch dort, wo politische Korruption ihren Einzelfallstatus überschreitet und sich somit zum öffentlichen Problem, zur Bedrohung des Staates wandelt. Genauer: jene Funktionen, die von einem intakten politischen System übernommen werden müssen, sind auch die grundsätzlichen Fixpunkte einer politikwissenschaftlichen Untersuchung. Hierbei hat es insbesondere um die Frage zu gehen, ob und inwieweit eine Aufrechterhaltung jener Funktionen noch garantierbar oder bereits im Korrosionsprozess der politischen Korruption begriffen ist. An dieser Stelle macht sich bereits die begriffliche Schwierigkeit bemerkbar, wann etwas als öffentliches Problem zu gelten hat. Anders als bei eindeutig sanktionierbaren, da strafgesetzlich fixierten Delikten, lassen sich über das Dunkelfeld der Korruption und ihre immateriellen schädlichen Auswirkungen auf die Öffentlichkeit bislang nur Vermutungen anstellen. Jener Umstand erleichtert die Analyse des Phänomens nicht unbedingt. Die oft bemühte Metapher, aufgeklärte Fälle von korrupten Machenschaften seien lediglich die Spitze des Eisbergs, schärft zumindest den analytischen Blick. Eine sozialwissenschaftliche Betrachtung bleibt dennoch auf Grund diverser Faktoren getrübt: korrupte Personen, zumal sie sich als Mächtige und Einflussreiche zur gesellschaftlichen Elite zählen, können sich einem forschenden, aufklärenden Blick besser entziehen, ihr Intrigenspiel geschickter verkleiden, als dies in diversen anderen kriminellen Milieus möglich wäre. Zum anderen ist es erheblich schwieriger, den Umstand der Korruption einzugrenzen; wer wann wo und inwieweit korrupt ist, lässt sich großteils nur undeutlich benennen. Vorausgesetzt sei hier natürlich die Abneigung gegen pauschale Schuldurteile "der" Politiker und Wirtschaftsführer en gros.

1993 Nordeuropa-Forum (-) 1993 (1993) ([1]) Nr. 1, 1993 ([1]) Titelseite ([1]) Forum (3) Karrierenotiz Hain Rebas (3) Inhaltsverzeichnis (4) Editorial (5) Essay (6) Nach dem Schweigen (6) Thema (12) Kaliningrad: Schmelztiegel im Nordosten (13) Mälarregion: Das Herz Schwedens (17) Mehr als Iglus und Eisbären: Zwischen Arktis und Europa (20) Die Barentsregion: Grünes Licht (23) Ureinwohner im Norden: Ultima Thule (26) Kolumne (29) NORDICOM droht der "Abwicklungs"-Tod (29) Portrait (30) Der Löwe von Idstedt: Nationales Symbol im Sturm (30) Interview (32) ".und dann, hoffen wir, geht es bergauf." (32) Kultur (35) Carl Larsson: Natürlichkeit nach Strich und Farben (35) Musikszene Norden: Sinfonia Lahti strebt nach Weltruhm (38) Musik aus Finnland: Sibelius lebt (41) Trommeln in Lappland: Auf der Suche (42) Nordische Literaturtage: Isländisches Blau (43) 34. Nordische Filmtage in Lübeck: Kommerz statt Kunst (45) Computerspiel: Die Lust am bösen Deutschen? (47) Am Medienhimmel: Nordsat's Revival? (48) Berichte & Analysen (50) Die Zeit drängt: Rettet den Norden nach Europa! (50) Small is beautiful: Ja heißt Nein (52) Schwedens EG-Alptraum: Ein Riß geht durchs Land (53) Island: Exklusivität hat ihren Preis (54) Estlands Krone: Richtiges Geld? (54) Sozialwissenschaften in Lettland: Doppelter Übergang (56) Konflikt und Kooperation: Ostsee-Friedensforschung (57) Schweden und Dänemark: Damenwahl (59) Ausgelesen (61) Vorschau (62) Impressum (62) Nr. 2, 1993 ([1]) Titelseite ([1]) Forum (3) Humboldt-Redaktion (3) Inhaltsverzeichnis (4) Editorial (5) Pressespiegel (6) Essay (8) Links vom Sonnenaufgang (8) Thema (12) Veränderungen: Fax-Gerät im Kuhstall (13) Verstehen wir uns? Wie die Axt im Walde (14) Finnischer Nationalcharakter: Entschlossene Aphasiker mit Herz (16) Schwedische Mentalität: Und ewig singen die Felder (18) Neuzeit-Wikinger: Auf Hägars Spuren (20) Imagepflege: Freundschaft zum Norden (23) Kolumne (27) Können wir uns auf Deutschland verlassen? (27) Portrait (28) Wolfgang Butt Verlag. Fährfahrten der Literatur (28) Interview (30) Fisch, Kunst und Nietzsche (30) Kultur (33) Zum Grieg-Jahr 1993: Der große alte Mann aus Bergen (33) Popmusik aus Skandinavien: Ohrenschmaus oder "Hundegebell" (37) Per Olof Ekström. Sie tanzte nur einen Sommer (38) 43. Internationale Filmfestspiele Berlin: Von Wirklichkeit und Unterhaltung (40) Schweden: Ideelles Nahradio bald am Ende (42) Archäologisches Museum: Mit High-Tech in die Steinzeit (44) Schwedische Typographie: Alles Logo! (46) Nordlandfahrten: Reisen und Regieren (47) Per-Inge Isheden: Frühling und Schatten (48) Norwegische Gegenwartsliteratur: Abseits alter Traditionen (49) Bjørneboe-Biografie: Am Ziel vorbei (50) Berichte & Analysen (53) Schwedischer Großversuch: Aus Holz mach Treibstoff (53) Islands Hochschulen: Glückspiel Examen (54) Doppelbelastung: Freizeit und Arbeit (54) Rezension: Exil in Norwegen (57) Schicksal: "Kind der Schande" (58) Dänemark: Karte statt Münze (59) Der Idstedt-Löwe II: Gefährlich ist's den Leu zu wecken (60) Nachschlag (62) Ausgelesen (65) Vorschau (66) Impressum (66) Nr. 3, 1993 ([1]) Titelseite ([1]) Forum (3) Korrespondentin in Oslo (3) Inhaltsverzeichnis (4) Editorial (5) Essay (6) Dänemark - Ausläufer der nordeutschen Tiefebene? (6) Thema (8) Wohlfahrtsstaat: Europa an der Wegscheide (9) Schweden: Auslaufmodell (14) Sorgenvolle Zukunft? Interview mit Harry Schein (19) Bankenkrise: Nordlicht am Ende des Tunnels (21) Nordek: Gescheiterte Kooperation (23) Maastricht: Mal nein - mal ja (24) Norwegens Zukunft: Reicht das Öl? (28) Notizen aus der Provinz: Aufstieg und Fall der Schafsinseln (31) Portrait (35) In Memoriam: Tod einer lebenden Legende (35) Interview (37) Mit sechsundsechzig Jahren. Interview mit Jan Myrdal (37) Kolumne (40) "Kalte Miete" (40) Kultur (41) Hilding Rosenberg: Herr der Töne (41) Rundfunk in Litauen: Schwere Geburt (43) Skandinavische Sprachen: Tod auf Raten (45) Ausstellung: Samisches Kunsthandwerk (47) Hartes Pflaster Berlin. Interview mit Ahti Jäntti, dem Direktor des Finnland-Instituts Berlin. (49) Der schwedische Volkswagen: Fahrgestell - Nr. 2 862 400 (51) Berichte & Analysen (52) Junge Demokratie: Wahlfang in Lettland (52) Russen in Lettland: Stachel im Fleisch (55) Schweres Wasser: Einträgliche Ignoranz (56) Bauboom in Berlin: Skandinavier drängen auf den Markt (57) Geschlechter - Gebesser: Frauenförderung in der Krise (58) Nordmeer: Doppelte Bedrohung (60) Walfang: Gegen die "zivilisierte" Welt (62) Bücher (64) Seelenlandschaft: Aus dem Leben eines Misanthropen (64) Isländischer Traum: Im Dunstkreis Amerikas (65) Jan Myrdal: Kindheit in der obersten Etage der Macht (66) Visionen: Fremdsprachen in der Wirtschaft (67) Bilderwelten: Schöner als der Text (68) Schatz in der Natur: Am Ende der Harpunenleine (69) Hit und Flop: Weltgeltung der Peripherie (70) Nachschlag (72) Ausgelesen (73) Vorschau (74) Impressum (74) Nr. 4, 1993 ([1]) Titelseite ([1]) Forum (3) Korrespondent in Reykjavík (3) Inhaltsverzeichnis (4) Editorial (5) Presseschau (6) Essay (8) Olaus Petri 1493-1993: Der schwedische Luther (8) Thema (10) Wohlbefinden: Bauern haben es schwer (11) "Alt und Lebenssatt" (14) Dänische Aids-Politik: Toleranz statt Ausgrenzung (15) Aids-Vorbeugung in Schweden: Zwangsisolation für Positive (17) Telemedizin: Hilfe über den Äther (20) Medizinische Universität Lübeck: Gesund im Grünen (22) Interview (26) Noch macht Moskau die Politik. Wjatscheslaw Daschitschew zu den deutsch-russischen Beziehungen (26) Portrait (29) Dänische Kaufmannsschule: Jubiläum in Bremen (29) Kultur (31) Norwegen in Berlin: Kunst gestern und heute (31) Ja wo lesen Sie denn? LiteraTour durch Schleswig-Holstein (33) Hammoniale Hamburg: Kurs Nordnordost (34) Pihtipudas-Quintett: Mit Begeisterung (36) Rundfunk in Estland: Befreite Ätherwellen? (37) Kultur- oder Kommerzfunk: Medienpolitik auf dänisch (39) 25 Jahre Nordens Hus: Nordische Internationale (42) Nordisches Modell: Zukunft der Nostalgie (44) Berichte & Analysen (46) Stortingswahlen: Was nun, Frau Brundtland? (46) Finnische Entwicklungshilfe: Wohin mit der Nächstenliebe? (48) Mülldeponie Ostsee: Zeitbombe Chemiewaffen (52) Die Schwedenkrone: Dritter Weg oder Euro-Norm (55) Skandinavistik-Tagung: Regionale Kulturbeziehungen (58) Litauen: Ende der Volksfront (59) Bücher (63) Biographie: Betont leise (63) Schon wieder: Karl XII. von Schweden (64) Heidnisches Weltbild: Aus alt mach' neu (65) Immer noch: Deutsches Gespenst (66) Non-Egalia: Leichte Lektüre (67) Kulturunterschiede: Kommunikationsstörung (68) Grönland im Buch: Wikinger bis Inuit (70) Nachschlag (73) Vorschau (74) Impressum (74)

Le mouvement de défense des droits qui a émergé en URSS dans les années 1960, a contribué à la mise en pratique des droits internationaux inscrits dans des traités. Il a légué une éthique de non-violence, de soutien aux victimes de l'arbitraire, d'action dans les cadres du droit, d'appels au respect de la Constitution russe et de recours aux traités internationaux relatifs aux droits de l'homme et aux institutions transnationales chargées de les garantir. Dans la Russie post-soviétique, cette mémoire de la défense des droits s'actualise et se régénère à travers l'engagement de jeunes défenseurs des droits dans un contexte de forte répression des voix dissidentes et critiques du pouvoir depuis le tournant autoritaire de 2012. Cette thèse aborde l'évolution du mouvement de défense des droits de l'homme et du milieu associatif dans la Russie des années 2010, et celle de la catégorisation des étrangers. Elle s'inscrit dans le questionnement anthropologique sur la concrétisation et la mise en pratique des droits de l'homme. Pour ce faire, elle arrime les combats des défenseurs des droits à l'ethnographie, effectuée entre 2012 et 2016, d'une association russe d'aide aux migrants et aux réfugiés située à Moscou : le Comité « Assistance civique » (CAC). Dans une perspective historique et anthropologique, l'aide octroyée par le CAC est étudiée en suivant, depuis l'éclatement de l'URSS, les vagues d'exilés qui arrivent à Moscou ou les personnes qui deviennent des étrangers, soit parce qu'elles n'arrivent pas à se légaliser, soit parce qu'elles ne peuvent pas accéder à la pleine citoyenneté en raison de la xénophobie, ou d'obstacles bureaucratiques et législatifs. L'objectif est d'analyser, d'un côté, qui est étranger en Russie et comment ces étrangers sont traités par les instances étatiques et, d'un autre côté, de mettre en relief les solidarités qui s'expriment au sein du CAC en lien avec l'accueil des étrangers et les limites de cette aide. Dans les années 1990, le CAC vient en aide essentiellement aux réfugiés de l'ex-URSS, puis aux déplacés intérieurs de la Tchétchénie. À partir de 1998, il devient le principal partenaire du Haut Commissariat aux réfugiés en Russie. Il s'inscrit alors dans un réseau d'aide humanitaire transnationale aux normes juridiques définies et accueille des réfugiés de pays plus éloignés. Outre les arrivées successives des citoyens ex-soviétiques, des Afghans, des Syriens et des Ukrainiens, cette thèse se penche plus spécifiquement sur la « vie sociale des droits » (Goodale 2009) des migrants et des réfugiés de différents pays d'Afrique qui se retrouvent à Moscou dans une situation particulièrement vulnérable et étudie la violence institutionnelle et populaire dont ils peuvent être victimes, ainsi que les violations de leurs droits La réalisation des droits des migrants et des réfugiés est entravée par le contexte de répression des associations et des défenseurs des droits, par un discours étatique qui fait primer la sécurité de l'État sur les droits individuels et en opposition aux valeurs occidentales (dont les droits de l'homme), par la primauté du critère ethnique sur la promotion d'une citoyenneté individuelle, par une approche policière des migrations et par la réduction des migrants et des réfugiés à des travailleurs temporaires. Les membres du CAC se battent pour l'application du droit d'asile et la réalisation des droits civiques et socioéconomiques. Pour ce faire, ils ont recours au discours des droits et aux instances internationales et transnationales qui les soutiennent. Toutefois, afin d'offrir une aide plus efficace et humaine, ils combinent à leur approche juridique dominante, des solidarités plus pragmatiques, un engagement personnel fort et une aide humanitaire et caritative. ; The human rights movement that emerged in the USSR in the 1960s has contributed to the implementation of international rights written in treaties. It has transmitted an ethic of non-violence, support for the victims of arbitrariness, action within the framework of law, calls for the respect of the Russian Constitution, and recourse to international treaties on human rights and transnational institutions responsible for guaranteeing them. In post-Soviet Russia, this memory of the defense of rights is being updated and regenerated through the engagement of young human rights defenders in a context of strong repression of dissenting voices and critics of power since the authoritarian turn of 2012. This thesis examines the development of the human rights movement and associations in Russia in the 2010s, and the evolution of foreigners' categorizations. It participates to the anthropological questioning of the realization of human rights. To do this, it links the struggles of human rights defenders to the ethnography, carried out between 2012 and 2016, of a Russian association helping migrants and refugees and located in Moscow: the "Civic Assistance" Committee (CAC). From a historical and anthropological perspective, the help given by the CAC is studied by following, since the breakup of the USSR, the waves of refugees who arrive in Moscow or the people becoming foreigners, either because they fail to legalize, either because they cannot have access to full citizenship due to xenophobia, or bureaucratic and legislative obstacles. The objective is to analyze, on the one hand, who is a foreigner in Russia and how these foreigners are treated by state authorities and, on the other hand, to highlight the solidarities that are expressed within the CAC in connection with the reception of foreigners and the limits of this assistance. In the 1990s, the CAC provided aid primarily to refugees from the former USSR, then to internally displaced persons from Chechnya. In 1998, it became the main partner of the High Commissioner for Refugees in Russia. Therefore, it was further involved in a transnational humanitarian aid network with defined legal standards, and welcomed refugees from more distant countries. In addition to the successive arrivals of ex-Soviet citizens, Afghans, Syrians and Ukrainians, this thesis examines more specifically the "social life of rights" (Goodale 2009) of migrants and refugees from different African countries, who are in a particularly vulnerable situation in Moscow, and studies the institutional and popular violence they may suffer, as well as the violations of their rights The realization of the rights of migrants and refugees is hampered by the context of repression of associations and activists, by a state discourse that prioritizes security over individual rights and in opposition to Western values (including human rights), by the primacy of the ethnic criterion over the promotion of individual citizenship, by a police approach to migration, and by the reduction of migrants and refugees to temporary workers. Activists at the CAC fight for the application of the right of asylum and the realization of civil and socioeconomic rights. To do this, they rely on the discourse of rights and the international and transnational bodies that support them. However, in order to offer an aid that is more effective and humane, they combine their dominant legal approach with more pragmatic solidarity, strong personal commitment and humanitarian and charitable aid.

Governance of local sports policy: A Swedish case study in the post-NPM era Aim This study is about the distribution of public sport resources in Sweden since 1985 on the local level. A motive is that earlier research has not univocally been able to show if the socioeconomic transformations in society, the change of ideas about how to arrange and govern it, and implemented policy has made any difference for the actual outcome of sport policies. The aim is to analyze the governance of public resource allocation to sport in Stockholm city 1985-2017 and its consequences. The research questions are as follows: - How is the resources distributed? How much resources and what resources are distributed? In what ways are they distributed? To whom are they distributed? - Which principles are the basis for resource allocation? What are the guidelines of the decision makers and what are the underlying norms and values? - How are the guiding decisions taken and how are they implemented? Who and what is involved and effect resource allocation, i.e. which actors participate in the decisions, who implement them and what structures affect them? Theoretical background and literature review The analytical approach starts within historical and political science and research of societal governing. Three forms of political social governing are scrutinized: hierarchic governing, discursive governing and interactive governing. The concept governing is stipulated as a long-term impact that brings on certain specific effects. The changes during the last three to four decades that have influenced sport policies on a national level has been thoroughly described. From the beginning of the 1990s, sport scientists discern a gradual change in the stately view of the sport movement's societal role. They refer among other things to new general principles regarding the governing of aims and results in Swedish administration, and also to more cooperation and trust between governmental actors and to a rapidly growing element of aimed public project funding.[1] At the same time though it is pointed out that "the greater part of sport support today lies within the appropriation of 'common nature' that RF has at its independent disposal", and that "the state /…/ has avoided political pressure regarding regulation and normative development of sport clubs and federations".[2] The centralized attempts to control have, as earlier on in history, mainly been in form of expressed wishes and interests – not regulations and sanctions. The matter of a new basis for negotiations and its penetration in practice can thereby only be settled empirically. Research design, methodology and data analysis The method is a case study of Stockholm city. The empirical data is collected from meeting minutes and decision protocols from the public sports authority, contemporary literature and recorded and transcribed interviews with representatives of politics and public administration. The interviews are qualitative and semi-structured. The data consists of leading decisions, i.e. those decisions that – in retrospect – can be seen as indicative on how the public sport resources should be (and have been) used. It could be long-term policy decisions or more direct, acting decisions. Mainly it is decisions and acting on support for sporting facilities and sport clubs that is being analyzed. The concept of support refers mainly to financial support. Results/findings and discussion The survey about the governing forms and practices indicates, that a lot of different shapes and practices have been used for a long time working parallel as a complement to each other rather than succeeding (replacing) each other. Primary results regarding the accomplished sport politics, i.e. the sport policy and administration-effects and consequences, are in the first place that the allowance of public funds to sports has increased during the period. Secondly that the resources are distributed in mainly the same ways (channels) as before and that there are mainly the same physical activities, organizations and social groups as before that are favoured – while others in comparison are disadvantaged. This is a fact in spite of that the politicians since quite a long time are fully aware of which groups have been neglected when it comes to physical activities, what kind of new desires citizens have today, and that there are many new initiatives from public authorities time and again to bring about a change. Conclusion, contribution and implications The conclusion reads that the structural elements economy, tradition (worked up systems and routine procedures) and culture (normed/standardized behaviours) have influenced the shaping of sports policy after 1985 more than individual actors and their articulated interests and expressed values. A fact is also that politicians and civil servants have a main responsibility regarding the implemented policies, but that they at the same time are forced to take into consideration the investments already done and the economic reality that reigns here and now. Interestingly enough international research often come to similar conclusions, which shows that there is much to gain by comparisons on procedures and outcomes of public sport support. Obviously there is local sports policy with high ambitions all around Europe. At the same time economic ideas, established structures and strong traditions often set more or less distinct limits of what could be done. The contribution this article provides concerns details on how the leading decisions are taken, by whom and why. The article also elaborates on the routines that make the setting for the civil servants in the local public sport administration and the cultures/traditions that influences the representatives in the public sport authority as well as the employees in the administration. References Bramham, P. (2008). "Sports policy". In: Hylton, K. & Bramham, P. (eds.). Sports development: policy, process and practice (2:nd. ed.). Oxon: Routledge. Carlsson, B., Norberg, J. & Persson, H. T. R. (2011). The governance of sport from a Scandinavian perspective. International Journal of Sport Policy and Politics, 3:3, 305-309. Fahlén, J. & Stenling, C. (2016). Sport policy in Sweden. International Journal of Sport Policy, 8:3, 515-531. Houlihan, B. (2011). "Introduction: Government and civil society involvement in sports development." In: Houlihan, B. & Green, M. (eds.). Routledge handbook of sports development. London: Routledge. King, N. (2009). Sport Policy and Governance: Local Perspectives. Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann/Elsevier. Norberg, J. R. (2011). A contract reconsidered? Changes in the Swedish state's relation to the sports movement. International Journal of Sport Policy and Politics, 3,3, 311-325. [1] Fahlén & Karp, 2010; Fahlén & Stenling, 2016; Norberg, 2011; 2016, p. 205-206; Österlind & Fahlén, 2015. [2] Norberg, 2016, p. 206; Carlsson, Norberg & Persson, 2011, p. 305.

Inhaltsangabe: Mit Sorge beobachtete man lange in der EU den seit 1996 währenden Streit um Transitgebühren, Gaspreise und ausstehende Zahlungen zwischen der Ukraine und der russischen Gazprom. Inzwischen – bedingt durch immer kürzere Transitverträge - kehrt diese Auseinandersetzung beinahe jährlich zurück auf die Tagesordnung. Seinen ersten Höhepunkt erreichte dieser Streit am 1. Januar 2006, als Gazprom zum ersten Mal die Gaslieferungen an die Ukraine einstellte. Da die Ukraine jedoch weiterhin Gas aus der Druzba-Pipeline entnahm, kam es in einigen Zielländern des Gases zu Versorgungsengpässen. Schon damals war das Entsetzen unter den EU-Mitgliedern groß und noch größer war es um die Jahreswende 2008/2009, als Russland die Gaslieferungen über die Ukraine vollständig einstellte und in einigen der ost- und südosteuropäischen EU-Staaten das öffentliche Leben für mehrere Tage zum Erliegen kam. Diese Ereignisse zeigen einmal mehr wie eng die wirtschaftlichenVerflechtungen und Abhängigkeiten zwischen Russland und Europa sind. Gerade heute, wo die Zeiten preisgünstiger Importe fossiler Energieträger, wie sie von den 1980ern an knapp zwei Jahrzehnte lang vorherrschten, endgültig vorbei sind, rückt Russland als Energielieferant immer stärker in den Fokus Europas. Die EU-Mitglieder sind heute mehr als je zu vor auf russisches Gas und Öl angewiesen, da die europäischen Quellen nahezu erschöpft sind. Die energiewirtschaftlichen Beziehungen zwischen den westeuropäischen Staaten und Russland reichen bis in das Jahr 1968 zurück. Damals lieferte die Sowjetunion zum ersten Mal Erdgas nach Österreich und zwei Jahre später schloss Mannesmann den ersten Erdgas-Röhrenvertrag mit der UdSSR. In dessen Folge wurden die Erdgasfelder Westsibiriens erschlossen und lieferten ab 1973, geregelt durch langfristige Verträge, Gas nach Westeuropa. Inzwischen machen die Erdgasimporte aus Russland z.B. 24 Prozent in Frankreich und 100 Prozent im Baltikum, der Slowakei, Rumänien und Bulgarien aus. Die EU-Mitgliedstaaten sind die größten Konsumenten der russischen Energieexporte und die russische Infrastruktur zum Transport von Energieträgern ist stark auf Westeuropa ausgerichtet. Bis zur kürzlichen Unterbrechung der Lieferungen über die Druzba-Pipeline konnte Russland seine Lieferverträge über Gas und Öl immer erfüllen, denn schließlich hat Russland nicht nur die weltweit größten Erdgasreserven, sondern nimmt auch bei den Erdölreserven den 7. Platz hinter den führenden OPEC-Ländern ein. Auf jeden Russen kommen 17 Mal mehr Bodenschätze als auf jeden Europäer. Doch diese Zahlen können nicht über die eigentliche Knappheit dieser Ressourcen hinweg täuschen, denn sie wird uns durch das langsame Versiegen von Öl- und Gasfeldern in Russland vor Augen geführt. So sind die westsibirischen Erdgasfelder Urengoj, Jamburg und Medvežje, deren gefördertes Gas zum größten Teil nach Westeuropa geliefert wird und die im Jahr 2000 85 Prozent der Gesamtfördermenge des russischen Erdgases lieferten, zu 50 Prozent, 26 Prozent und 68 Prozent erschöpft. Bei den Teuerungsraten für Energie in den letzten Jahren handelt es sich also nicht nur um ein temporäres oder konjunkturelles Phänomen, sondern der Preisanstieg ist strukturell bedingt. Hinzu kommen die steigenden Förderkosten durch die Erschließung kleiner und schwierig zu erschließender Vorkommen, eine steigende Nachfrage und die verschärfte Konkurrenz alter mit neuen Wachstumsregionen im Zeichen der Globalisierung. Die hausgemachten Probleme wie mangelnde Energieeffizienz, fehlende Investitionen privater Energiekonzerne zur Förderung der Wettbewerbsfähigkeit von erneuerbaren Energien sowie das Fehlen klarer energiepolitischer Prioritäten scheinen dabei noch am ehesten zu lösen zu sein. Die Mitglieder der Europäischen Union hoffen auch in Zukunft einen großen Teil ihres Energiebedarfs durch Importe aus Russland abdecken zu können. Doch durch die kürzlichen Ereignisse ist das Vertrauen in die Zuverlässigkeit russischer Energielieferungen erheblich erschüttert worden. Die russischen 'Gaskriege' mit Georgien, der Ukraine und Weißrussland in den letzten Jahren zeigen, dass Russland nicht länger davor zurückschreckt Energielieferungen als außenpolitisches Druckmittel zu nutzten. Die EU erkannte schon Anfang der 1990er Jahre die wachsende Bedeutung von Versorgungssicherheit und Energiepolitik im Allgemeinen und versuchte mit der Energiecharta von 1991 und dem Energiechartavertrag (ECV) von 1994 die langfristige Versorgung Europas durch Energieimporte zu sichern. Dieser Vertrag sah vor, den osteuropäischen und postsowjetischen Staaten für den Zugang zu ihren Energiereserven im Gegenzug, Investitionen in ihre Energiesektoren zu garantieren. Gleichzeitig sollten die WTO-Regeln auf den Energiehandel übertragen werden. In Folge dessen wären auch die alljährlichen ukrainisch-russischen Streitigkeiten über die Transitpreise für russisches Gas vertraglich geregelt worden und ein Stopp der Gaslieferungen wäre einem schweren Verstoß gegen den ECV gleichgekommen. Russland unterzeichnete diesen Vertrag zwar wie auch 50 andere Staaten und die EU, als eigenständiger Vertragspartei, hat ihn aber bis heute nicht ratifiziert. Die beiden 1996 und 2001 angesetzten Ratifizierungsverfahren wurden jeweils nach den parlamentarischen Anhörungen abgebrochen. Im Jahr 2004 wurden die Gespräche mit den Institutionen der Energiecharta über dem Streitpunkt des Transitprotokolls sogar gänzlich abgebrochen. Wenn sie auch später wieder aufgenommen wurden, bis heute wurde kein erneutes Ratifizierungsverfahren in der russischen Föderalversammlung eingeleitet. Ohne die Beteiligung Russlands am ECV bleibt der Vertrag jedoch weit hinter den Erwartungen der EU zurück. Ohne Russland können neue Bauprojekte nicht umgesetzt werden. Ohne Russland ist kein freier Transit von Energieträgern aus den zentralasiatischen Staaten nach Europa möglich. Forschungsfrage und Aufbau der Arbeit: Energiepolitik hat somit in den letzten beiden Jahrzehnten an immer größerer Bedeutung gewonnen. Inzwischen sprechen einige Wissenschaftler schon von der 'Geopolitik des Öls' und Dokumente wie die russische 'Energiestrategie bis 2020' zeigen eindrucksvoll, welche herausragende Bedeutung der Brennstoff- und Energiekomplex (BEK) für Russland bis heute in gesamtwirtschaftlicher und politischer Hinsicht hat. Die gestiegene Bedeutung der Energiethematik in der Außenpolitik ist Anlass sich in dieser Arbeit mit folgender Frage auseinanderzusetzen: Wie lässt sich der Wandel der russischen Außenpolitik gegenüber der EU-15 am Beispiel des Energiechartavertrags erklären? Die Art der Außenpolitik soll in dieser Arbeit als abhängige Variable dienen, während die Ursachen für den Wandel der Außenpolitik die unabhängigen Variablen bilden werden. Diese unabhängigen Variablen werden aus der liberalen Theorie der Internationalen Beziehungen und dem Neorealismus abgeleitet. Der hier verwendete Liberalismus sieht in gesellschaftlichen Präferenzbildungsprozessen die Ursache für außenpolitische Entscheidungen. Konkret bedeutet dies, dass die außenpolitischen Präferenzen einer dominanten innenpolitischen Gruppe die Außenpolitik Russlands bestimmen. Der Neorealismus betrachtet dagegen die Verteilung von Macht und Machtmitteln, sowie die Existenz von Machtpolen zwischen zwei Staaten als ausschlaggebend für die Art der Außenpolitik. Das folgende Kapitel wird näher auf die beiden Theorien und die daraus entwickelten Hypothesen eingehen. In Kapitel 3 werden die verwendeten Variablen operationalisiert. Die abhängige Variable 'Art der russischen Außenpolitik' wird so operationalisiert, dass der Indikator die Unterschiede zwischen den Präferenzen Russlands und der EU-15 erfasst. Der Indikator kann die Werte Kooperation, aufschiebende Kooperation und Konfrontation annehmen. Die Messung geschieht innerhalb der drei Untersuchungszeiträume 1992-1994, 1996-1998 und 1999-2004. Diese Abschnitte sind so gewählt, dass sie die Zeiträume eingrenzen, in denen verstärkt Auseinandersetzungen mit der Thematik des ECV zwischen Russland und der EU stattgefunden haben. Aus der liberalen Theorie der Internationalen Beziehungen lässt sich die unabhängige Variable 'Machtverteilung innerhalb Russlands' ableiten. Der dazu entwickelte Indikator soll die dominante innergesellschaftliche Gruppe und ihre Präferenzen bezüglich der russischen Außenpolitik gegenüber der EU am Beispiel des ECV erfassen. Dazu werden die strukturelle und die situative Mobilisierung aller in Frage kommender Gruppen gemessen und dominante von ihnen ermittelt. Die Operationalisierung der neorealistischen unabhängigen Variable 'Relative Machtstellung Russlands und der EU-15' geschieht über die Bildung von Indikatoren zur Messung der relativen Machtressourcen und der Machtpole. Die Messung der relativen Machtressourcen geschieht durch spezifische, dem Energiebereich entnommene Kennzahlen. Als Machtpole, die die Beziehung zwischen Russland und der EU beeinflussen, kommen nur die Staaten in Frage, die selbst über genügend Machtressourcen zur Einflussnahme verfügen. Auf den Abschnitt zur Operationalisierung der Variablen folgt ihre Messung. Die Messung der abhängigen Variable wird zeigen, dass es einen Wandel der russischen Außenpolitik von Kooperation, über aufschiebende Kooperation hin zu Konfrontation gegeben hat. Die anschließende Messung der unabhängigen Variablen wird zeigen, dass sich die russische Außenpolitik mit Hilfe der liberalen Theorie der IB erklären lässt und den neorealistischen Hypothesen nur eine geringe Erklärungskraft beizumessen ist. Forschungsstand: Die häufig von Auseinandersetzungen und Machtkämpfen, aber auch von Kooperation geprägten Beziehungen zwischen Russland und Westeuropa schlagen sich auch in der wissenschaftlichen Literatur nieder. So befassen sich europäische und russische Wissenschaftler in unzähligen Schriften mit der russischen Außenpolitik und den Beziehungen zwischen Russland und der EU. Angesichts der Einzigartigkeit des Energiechartavertrags ist es allerdings erstaunlich, dass es bisher kaum wissenschaftliche Arbeiten gibt, die sich mit der Position Russlands zum Energiechartavertrag näher befassen. Selbst zum Energiechartavertrag als solchem gibt es nur wenige wissenschaftliche Arbeiten: Rainer Liesens Dissertation untersucht Ursprünge, Voraussetzungen, Inhalt und Bedeutung des Energiechartavertrags unter juristischem Blickwinkel. Julia Dorè und Robert de Bauw beschäftigen sich in ihrem Werk mit dem Inhalt des Vertrags, gehen aber auch auf den wirtschaftlichen Hintergrund ein und zeichnen Teile der Verhandlungen nach. Der bisher umfangreichste Band zum Energiechartavertrag wurde von Thomas Wälde herausgegeben. Darin kommen neben Juristen, Politikwissenschaftler und Ökonomen auch Vertreter verschiedener Staaten und aus der Wirtschaft zu Wort. Hervorhebenswert ist der darauf aufbauende Band von Thomas Wälde und Andrei Konoplyanik in russischer Sprache. Darin befassen sich russische und internationale Experten mit der rechtlichen und wirtschaftlichen Seite des Vertrags,betrachten seine Entwicklung und setzen sich mit der Ratifizierungsdebatte innerhalb Russlands auseinander. Die einzige wissenschaftliche Arbeit, die sich eingehend mit der russischen Position zum Energiechartavertrag auseinandersetzen wird, ist die sich noch in der Entstehung befindende Dissertation von Boris Barkanov von der University of California at Berkeley. Ein erstes Ergebnis seiner Arbeit legte er mit den beiden Aufsätzen für die Berkeley Graduate Students Conference im Mai 2007 und im April 2008 vor. In 'Constructing the National Interest …' untersucht Barkanov die russische Außenpolitik zum ECV mit dem Fokus auf das Verständnis des nationalen Interesses in diesem Bereich durch die Entscheidungsträger. Basierend auf einem konstruktivistischen Ansatz nimmt Barkanov eine Analyse der Äußerungen von Entscheidungsträgern im Zeitraum von 2000 bis 2003 vor und argumentiert, dass der Wandel der russischen Außenpolitik auf einen Wandel des Verständnisses von nationalem Interesse zurückgeht. Barkanov identifiziert drei Prozesse, die zu diesem Wandel führten: 1) die Gegner des ECV, insbesondere Gazprom, verbreiteten neue Erkenntnisse über den Vertrag, 2) die Ernennung eines engen Vertrauten Präsident Putins zum Chef von Gazprom ließ eine effektive Lobby gegen den Vertrag entstehen und 3) die EU-Energiepolitik in dieser Zeit wurde von den Gegnern des ECV als Ressource gegen den Vertrag genutzt. In 'Saving the Gold Mine …' untersucht Barkanov die Bildung und den Wandel der russischen Präferenz zum Energiechartavertrag von 1997 bis 2001. Im Mittelpunkt steht dabei der Moment in dem sich die russischen Präferenzen von Unterstützung zu Ablehnung wandelten und die Denkweise der Akteure, die diesen Wandel zu verantworten haben. Einen besonderen Blick wirft Barkanov auf die Rolle Gazproms und die Frage des Third-Party-Access. Am Beispiel der Argumentationsmuster zweier russischer Politiker zeigt er wie sich Normen und Werte auf ihre Präferenzbildung hinsichtlich des ECV ausgewirkt haben. Hierbei stellt er fest, dass die Dynamiken der Präferenzänderung stark von den Mustern in etablierten Theorien abweichen. Anmerkungen zu Transkription und Übersetzung: Die Transkription der kyrillischen Buchstaben erfolgt entlang der wissenschaftlichen Bibliotheksumschrift. Abweichend davon wird auf die Punktierung des Buchstaben e verzichtet. Das Weichheitszeichen wird durch ein Apostroph, das Härtezeichen durch zwei wiedergegeben. Eine Ausnahme in der Transkription bilden in anderer Form in Deutschland gebräuchliche russische Eigennamen für international bekannte russische Persönlichkeiten, wie Boris Jelzin anstatt Boris El'cin oder Ewgenij Primakow anstatt Evgenij Primakov. Davon betroffen sind auch geographische Bezeichnungen und Firmennamen großer russischer Unternehmen, wie etwa Yukos statt Jukos. Die Nennung der fremdsprachlichen Literatur folgt der jeweils verwandten Transkription, um das Wiederfinden zu erleichtern. Alle Zitate aus dem Russischen wurden von der Autorin nach bestem Wissen übersetzt.

Issue 26.1 of the Review for Religious, 1967. ; impl~m~ntation of. Vaticaffllf~ '~- Monastic Pr~opbsal for Canon Law~, ~ by Monasticum Consilium Iuris Canonici 19 " Interview With Abbot Butldr ~' ~ e~tri~ ~fi~1~ '~ ~6 '. _POverty ~n Rehg~ous Life 4, by Ladiilqk. M. ~0~, S.J. . 60 Sanctificati~p t~oug~he Apostolate ~ ' b~ C~rles ~. Schleck, O,S.C. 83" Religious Life and the Christian Life 7' , by Sist~ Elaine Marie,~ S.'L.~ 1~37 ;? Complementarity by ~vid B. Burrell, C.S.C. ~ 149, Bibliography f6r R~enewal " by: Damien ~Isabell, O.F.M., . and Brot~r . Joach(m, O.F.M.~ 16~ Survey of Roman Documents 174 Views, News, PreVie"ws 180 Questions and Answers 183 Book Reviews 191 VOLUM~ 26 NUMBER 1 January 1967 Volume 26 1967 EDITORIAL OFFICE St. Mary's College St. Marys, Kansas 66536 BUSINESS OFFICE 428 East Preston Street Baltimore, Maryland 21202 ASSOCIATE EDITORS Everett' A. Diederich, S.J. Augustine G. Ellard, S.$. ASSISTANT EDITORS Ralph F. Taylor, S.J. William J. Weiler, S.J. DEPARTMENTAL EDITORS Questions and Answers Joseph F. Gallen, S.J. St. Joseph's Church 321 Willings Alley Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19106 Book Reviews William J. Mountain, S.J. Bellarmine School of Theology of Loyola University 230 South Lincoln Way North Aurora, Illinois 60542 Published in January, March, May, July, September, Novem. her on the fifteenth of the month. REVIEW FOR RELI. GIOUS is indexed in the CATHOLIC PERIODICAL IN-DEX and in BOOK REVIEW INDEX Notice to Subscribers Because of constantly increasing costs, REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS finds it necessary to increase the cost of its individual issues as well as of its sub-scriptions. The new rates, effective in' 1967, are the following: (1) Individual issues of the REWEW now cost one dollar; this price applies not only to all issues beginning with 1967 but also to all previously published issues. (2) Subscriptions in the United States, Canada, and Mexico now cost $5.00 per year; $9.00 for two years. (3) Subscriptions to other countries now cost ,$5.50 per year; $10.00 for two years. (4) All the above prices are in terms of U.S.A. dollars; accordingly all payments must be made in U.S.A. funds. These prices affect all individual issues sold on or after January 1, 1967. The new subscription prices are applicable to all subscriptions--new and renewed--beginning with the January, 1967, issue of the REVIEW. JOSEPH F. GALLEN, S.J. Implementation of Vatican II on Religious Life The postconciliar motu proprio of August 6, effective October 11, 1966, obliges all Latin and Oriental religious institutes to put into effect the pertinent norms of Vati-can Council II. The institutes are to promote primarily a newness of spirit and through this effect a renewal and adaptation of life and discipline. Renewal is not accom-plished once for all time. It is a continuous process that is to be maintained by the fervor of the members and the care of chapters and superiors. The documents of the Council that are principally to be studied are the Decree on the Appropriate Renewal of the Religious Life and Chapters V and VI of the Dogmatic Constitution on the Church, but all other conciliar documents should also be considered. The principal part in renewal and adaptation apper-tains to the religious institutes themselves, especially through their general chapters. The chapter is not merely to legislate but should also further the spiritual and apostolic activity of the institute. To promote renewal and adaptation, a special general chapter, ordinary or extraordinary, is to be assembled within two or at the most three years in all institutes, whether pontifical or diocesan. This special chapter may be divided into two distinct periods of sessions, if the chapter itself so decrees in'a secret vote. The interval between the periods should not generally extend beyond a year. The general chapter has the authority to change cer-tain norms of the constitutions experimentally, provided the purpose, nature, and character of the institute are preserved. Prudent experiments contrary to the common law of the Church, if judged profitable, will be freely permitted by the Holy See. These experiments may be Joseph F. Gal-len, s.J., resides at Saint Joseph's Church; 321 Wil-lings Alley; Phila-delphia, Pennsyl-vania 19106. VOLUME 26, 1967 5 4. 4. 4. Joseph F. Gallen, S.1. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 6 extended to the next ordinary general chapter, which also has the power to extend them but not beyond the following ordinary general chapter. The general council possesses the same authority of experimentation accord-ing to the conditions determined by the chapters in the intervals between these chapters. The definitive approba-tion of the constitutions is reserved to the Holy See for pontifical congregations and to the unanimous consent of all the local ordinaries in whose dioceses the congrega-tion has houses, in the case of a diocesan congregation. ,The cooperation of all superiors and members is necessary for the renewal of the religious life in them-selves, to prepare the spirit of the chapters, for accom-plishing the work of the chapters, and for the faithful observance of the norms enacted by the chapters. In preparing the special general chapter, the general council shall make provision for a wide and free consultation of the members and shall suitably collate and arrange the ideas received in this consultation to help and direct the work of the chapter. This can be accomplished through reports of community and provincial chapter discussions, appointment of commissions, sending out questionnaires, and so forth. The constitutions should contain the evangelical and theological principles on the religious life and on its union with the Church, as also the spirit and purposes of the founder and the sound traditions which constitute the spiritual patrimony of an institute. They should also include adequate but not superfluous juridical norms. The constitutions are to be imbued with the true spirit and be a vital rule. They must therefore contain both the spiritual and juridical norms and avoid a text that is merely exhortatory or merely juridical. The general chapters of institutes of simple vows should decree whether the constitutions are to permit or oblige to the renunciation of personal patrimonial property, whether already acquired or to be acquired, and whether the renunciation is to be made before perpetual profession or some years afterward. Superiors of all levels should have sufficient authority and be freed of the necessity of useless and too frequent recourse to higher authorities. Chapters and councils, each in their own way, should manifest the participation and care of all the members for the entire community, which will be verified especially if the members have a truly efficacious part in choosing those who constitute the chapters and councils. The study and meditation of the gospel and of all of Sacred Scripture is to be more intensely fostered in all the members from the noviceship, as also participation by more apt means in the life and mystery of the Church. For a closer participation in the liturgy, it is recom-mended that the entire or part of the Divine Office be substituted for a Little Office. A wider place is to be given to mental prayer instead of a multitude of vocal prayers, but the pious exercises commonly received in the Church are to be maintained. Religious more than the rest of the faithful should be devoted to penance and mortification. Penitential practices of an institute, if necessary, should be suitably adapted. In the present practice of the Sacred Congregation of Religious, an ordinary general chapter is one that takes place at the expiration of the term of office of the su-perior general, and on his or her death, resignation, or deposition; when convoked for any other reason, the chapter is extraordinary. The term of office of a superior general is ordinarily six years. The general chapter to be assembled within the next three years is special because its purpose is to promote renewal and adaptation. It may coincide with an ordinary general chapter; otherwise, it will be an extraordinary chapter of affairs, but no per-mission of the Holy See or of local ordinaries will be necessary to convoke it. The particular law of a lay religious congregation commonly consists of a Rule, if the congregation follows one, constitutions, directory, custom book, ordinances of the general chapter, regulations of higher superiors, book of common prayers, and a ceremonial. The congregation has had and still possesses the authority to change all of these except the Rule and constitutions. Any change in the Rule, e.g., of St. Augustine or St. Francis of Assisi, still demands the same authorization from the Holy See. Number six of the new norms of August 6 states: This general chapter has the right to change experimentally some norms of the constitutions . Prudent experiments contrary to the common law, if suitable, will be freely per-mitted by the Holy See. The expression, "some norms," is evidently vague. How-ever, the norms explicitly require the permission of the Holy See only for a change contrary to the common law, i.e., canon law. If permission were required for an ex-perimental change in any other type of article or with regard to any individual article, the necessity of such permission should have been stated; otherwise, the re-ligious institutes would be left with a highly obscure and sufficiently impractical power of experimentation, which would be contrary to the explicit purpose of the document. Obviously a congregation may not change any law of God that may be repeated in its constitutions, but it may experimentally change on its own authority any other norms of the constitutions, whether spiritual, ÷ ÷ ÷ Implementation o~ Vatican 11 VOLUME 26, 1967 7 ÷ ÷ ÷ 1oseph F~ Gallen, $.1. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 8 merely disciplinary, or juridical or legal, with the ex-ception of changes that would be contrary to canon law. A list is appended of changes that would or would not be contrary to canon law. The new document also gives permission for one sus-pension and reconvening of the special general chapter. This matter was quite fully treated in the RzviEw FOg P, ZLICIOtJS, 2'1 (1965), 476-7. The doctrine there given was that an institute may have that number of distinct periods of sessions that is required for the proper carry-mg out of its work. The treatment of the question in the. RzwEw concluded as follows: A chapter should ordinarily be completed in the one session or series of sittings, simply because this is the usual practice and understanding. A suspension and reconvening of a chap-ter is permissible for a proportionate reason. This is forbidden neither by canon law nor, at least generally speaking, by the constitutions. It is also at times necessary or very useful for the satisfactory completion of the work of the chapter and there-fore in accord with the very nature of a chapter. Finally, canon law and the practice of .the Holy See in a.pproving, constitu-tions admit the suspension of a chapter in particular cases without any indication whatever thatsuspension is confined to these cases. C. before a paragraph means that the matter is con-trar. y to canon law and thus demands the permission of the Holy See for the experimental change. If there is no G. before the paragraph, the particular matter is not contrary to canon law and may therefore be changed experimentally without the permission of the Holy See in the case of pontifical institutes or that of the local ordinaries in the case of diocesan congregations. C. Change of the name of the institute or of its spe-cial purpose. Addition of new works. C. Changing a Rule, e.g., of St. Augustine or St. Francis. C. Subjection, care, and direction of a congregation of sisters by a~n institute of men. C. Elimination of the class of lay sisters and their transfer to the one class of sisters. Change in the rights and obligations of a class of sis-ters, e.g., of lay sisters. Change in active and passive voice for the election of delegates to the general or provincial chapter. C. To give less suffrages to the professed of temporary vows or to the novices. Giving, changing, or eliminating greater suffrages to those who have died in office or held office. Change or elimination, except in voting in a chapter, of precedence among members of the same institute. C. Elimination of precedence in voting in a chapter. Change in titles or names of sisters, e.g., with regard to title of mother and change from the name of a saint or mystery to the baptismal and family names of the in-dividual. Change in the habit and in the dress of the postulants provided the latter remains different from the habit of the novices. C. Change in the obligation of the professed and novices of wearing the religious habit. To exact or not exact a dowry, to exact it only condi-tionally, i.e., that the superior who admits should de-mand a dowry if and as far as this is possible; to exact it only from choir and not from lay sisters; to leave the determination of the amotmt of the dowry to the general chapter, mother general, mother provincial, or to the superior who admits; to determine when the dowry is to be given to the institute; to admit the candidate without a dowry when a just reason exists for doing so; to estab-lish that the candidate who was dispensed from the dowry or admitted without it must establish a dowry !ater if she receives any substantial gift or bequest. Establishment, change, elimination oL and dispensa-tion from the wardrobe and the sum to be paid for the expenses of the postulancy. Establishment, change, or elimination of the record o~ property that a candidate brings with her as also of witnesses for this record. Establishment, change, or elimination of the civilly valid document signed on admission to the postulancy in which the candidate declares that she will not seek compensation for services given to the institute before or after profession, if she leaves or is dismissed, as also with regard to the renewal of the document at the time of perpetual profession. Establishing or changing higher superiors competent to admit to the postulancy. Establishing, changing, or eliminating a vote of a council required for this admis-sion. C. Changing or eliminating any o~ the invalidating or merely prohibiting impediments to the noviceship established by canon 542, i.e., membership in a non- Catholic sect, and so forth. Change or elimination of any or all of the impediments to the noviceship established by the particular constitu-tions, e.g., the illegitimate who have not been legiti-mated, those over thirty years of age, widows, those who were postulants or novices in another religious institute, converts, and so forth. Establishing or changing the higher superiors com-petent to dispense from the impediments of the particu-÷ ÷ ÷ Implementation Vatican II VOLUME 26, 1967 9~ ]oseph F. Gallen, REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 10 ]ar constitutions as also the vote of a council for such dispensations. . C. Ghange or elimination of the testimonial letters required for a professed religious who passes from one to another institute, and for those who have been in an ec-clesiastical college, postulancy, or noviceship of another institute. G. Ghange or elimination of certificates of baptism and confirmation required for admission to the novice-ship. Ghange or elimination of certificates of character and of good health as also of other testimonials required by the constitutions, e.g., parents' marriage certificate, cel'- tificates of studies and academic degrees, consent of parents or guardians, and so forth. C. To eliminate, shorten to less than six months, or dispense from the postulancy prescribed by canon law. To eliminate, abbreviate, or extend a postulancy or a duration o~ postulancy commanded only by the particu-lar constitutions, e.g., to extend a postulancy of nine months to a year. To give higher superiors the power of dispensing from such a postulancy or duration. Establishing or changing higher superiors competent to dismiss postulants. Establishing, changing, or elimi-nating a vote of a council required for this dismissal. Giving a local superior the right of dismissing a postu-lant, e.g., in an urgent case. Changing the discipline and formation, study, and occupation in external works during the postulancy, and the separation or association of the postulants with the novices and]or the professed. Establishing or changing the frequency and content of the reports to higher superiors on the postulants, novices, and professed of temporary vows. C. Prolongation of the postulancy for a period longer than six months. Establishment, change, or elimination of request to higher superiors ~or admission to the noviceship and the professions. To change the vote for admission to the noviceship from deliberative to consultative or vice versa. To establish or change a prescription that the mother provincial admits to the noviceship with the deliberative or consultative vote of her council but that this must be. supplemented by the confirmation, approval, or consent of the mother general either alone or with the delibera-tive or consultative vote of the general council, or a prescription that the mother provincial with the deliber-ative or consultative vote of her council merely proposes the admission to the noviceship to the mother general, who admits with the deliberative or consultative vote of her council. C. To change the norms on the canonical examina-tion by the local ordinary or his delegate before entrance into the noviceship, first profession, and perpetual pro-fession. C. To change the duration of the eight-day retreat and the norms for general confession before the noviceship. To change the higher superior competent to establish or transfer a novitiate and the vote of the council for these acts. C. To change the prescription that the permission of the Holy See is necessary for the valid establishment or transfer of a novitiate in a pontifical institute or the pro-hibition of establishing more than one novitiate in the same province without a serious reason and a special apostolic indult. To change a prescription that the permission of the local ordinary is necessary for the valid establishment or transfer of a novitiate in a diocesan congregation. To establish, change, or eliminate the prescription that each province must have its own novitiate. C. To change the separation of the novices and pro-fessed and the prohibition of communication between them. C. To change the prescription that superiors are to assign only exemplary professed to the novitiate house. C. To enact the canonical year as valid before the completion of the fifteenth year, or when made for a period less than an entire and continuous year, or made in a house not legitimately designated as a novitiate house. To permit the canonical year of noviceship to be made other than in the first year, e.g., in a noviceship of two years or eighteen months. To change the manner of beginning the noviceship. C. To change the manner of computing the canoni-cal year. C. To change the norms for the interruption of the canonical year, i.e., (1) if a novice is dismissed by the superior and leaves the house; (2) if a novice, without the permission of the superior, leaves the house with the in-tention of not returning; (3) if a novice has remained outside the house for more than thirty days; or the norm for the suspension of the canonical year, i.e., if a novice has been absent from the novitiate house for more than fifteen but not beyond thirty days. To change the manner of computing a noviceship that is longer than a year, e.g., to change the profession day to the second anniversary of the beginning of the novice-ship from the day after this second anniversay. C. To change the norm that absence from the noviti. ate house during the canonical year is to be permitted only for a just and grave reason. Implementation Vatican H VOLUME 26, 1967 ÷ ÷ 4. Joseph F. Gallen, S.l. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS C. To change the norm that a noviceship made for one class is not valid for another. C. To change the norms that during the canonical year novices (1) must not be employed in external works of the congregation; (2) nor should they apply them-selves intensively to the study of letters, sciences, or the arts; or that during the second year (3) the novices should not be employed in the external works beyond that per-mitted in the Instruction of the Sacred Congregation of Religious of November 3, 1921. C. To change the norm that the noviceship is not to be prolonged for more than six months. To change the vote of the council that the higher su-perior may need for a prolongation of the noviceship, e.g., from consultative to deliberative or vice versa. To change the higher superior competent for the dis-missal of a novice as also the vote for this dismissal. C. To change the duration of the eight-day retreat before first profession. To change the prescription that each novice is to be given a complete copy of the constitutions from the be-ginning of the noviceship. To establish or change those competent to admit a novice in danger of death to profession. C. To change the vote of the council for first pro-fession from deliberative to consultative or to no vote. C. To abbreviate or eliminate the three full years of temporary vows required before perpetual profession or to establish a period of temporary vows longer than six years. To prolong temporary profession in such a way that the total time in temporary vows is longer than six years. To change the manner of computing temporary profession (August 15, 1966-August 15, 1969). To establish or change the duration of the various temporary professions, e,g., five annual professions, three annual and one of two years, two annual and one of three years, one of two years and one of three, one of three and one of two years. To establish, abbreviate, extend, or abrogate a period of temporary vows longer than three but not longer than six years before perpetual profession. To dispense in whole or in part from a period of tem-porary vows beyond three years. C. To enact or permit that the first temporary pro-fession be made outside the novitiate house. To establish or change the place for renewals and pro-longation of temporary vows and for perpetual profes-sion. To establish or change the superior competent to de-cree a prolongation of temporary profession. C. To permit the anticipation of the renewal of temporary profession by more than a month or to permit the anticipation of perpetual profession. To change the formula and rite of profession. C. To change the prescription that there is to be no interval without vows between temporary professions or between temporary and perpetual profession. C. To change the prescription that the written decla-ration of a profession must be signed by the professed and the one who received the profession. To establish, change, or abrogate a prescription that the written declaration of a profession must be signed by other witnesses. C. To abrogate or change the canonical requisites for the validity of any juridical religious profession of canons 572-3, e.g., the sixteen and twenty-one full years necessary for the validity of temporary and perpetual profession. C. To change the norm that an invalid noviceship in-validates any subsequent religious profession. To establish or change the higher superior competent for admission to profession, the norms on the consent or confirmation of the mother general of an admission by the mother provincial, or on requests to the mother gen-eral by the mother provincial for admission, to enact a deliberative or consultative vote for perpetual profession and for renewal of temporary w)ws; and to establish or change to no vote a deliberative or consultative vote for the prolongation of temporary vows. To establish or change the higher superiors competent for the reception of various professions; to change this superior from the local ordinary to a higher superior of the institute; to delegate others also by the law of the constitutions for reception, e.g., provincial, regional, and local superiors, and their legitimate substitutes. C. To change the canonical norms on the convalida-tion and sanation of an invalid religious profession. C. To change the definition of the religious vows of poverty, chastity, and obedience. C. To eliminate or restrict the right of professed of simple vows to retain or acquire property for themselves (c. 101, § l, 2o). , C. To abrogate or change th~ prescription that a pro-fessed of simple vows must ced~ the administration and dispose of the use and nsufruct o! property already owned or acquired. | C. To abrogate or change the prescription that the permission of the Holy See is r ecessary for a change in favor of the congregation of a m~table part of this cession and disposition. C. To abrogate or change the prescription that a + 4. Implementation Vatican 11 VOLUME 26, 1967 13 ÷ ÷ ÷ Joseph F. Gallen, $.1. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 14 novice in religious congregations, before profession of temporary vows, is to make a civilly valid will concern-ing all the property she actually possesses or may subse-quently acquire. C. To abrogate or change the permission demanded by canon law for a change in this will. C. To permit a peculium, to change or abrogate the norm that the material necessities are at least ordinarily and habitually to be requested from and supplied by the institute, or to eliminate the obligation of avoiding superfluities. To change the formula required for the imposition of a precept in virtue of the vow of obedience, to change the superiors competent to give such a precept, e.g., to give this power or take it away from local superiors. To change the prescribed frequency of confession. C. "To change the canonical norms on the place for the confessions of women. C. To eliminate or change the necessity of special jurisdiction for the confessions of professed religiou,s women and novices. C. To have more than one ordinary confessor for reasons beyond those stated in canon law. C. To change the canonical norms on the special or-dinary confessor, the extraordinary, supplementary, and occasional confessors, the confessor of a seriously sick sister, and the confessor of anyone in danger of death. G. To change the canonical norms on the duration of the term and the reappointment of the ordinary confes-sor. C. To change the prohibition of interference into the internal and external government of the community by ordinary and extraordinary confessors. To change the canonical norms on manifestation of conscience. G. To change the prescriptions concerning daily at-tendance at Mass, or the promotion of frequent and daily Communion, or the power of a superior to forbid a subject to receive Holy Communion in the case of grave scandal or of a serious external fault until she has ap-proached the sacrament of penance. To adopt the Divine Office, e.g., Lauds, Vespers, and Compline, and in the vernacular. To determine the part of the Office that is to be said in common. To legislate on the duration, hour, and place of mental prayer; on vocal prayer, e.g., on the quantity and the specific vocal prayers to be said; on the preparation for mental prayer; the particular and general examen; spiri. tual reading; the number and duration of prescribed visits to the Blessed Sacrament; duration of the annual retreat and duration of other retreats; on tridua; deter- mination of the precise day, d~ making the monthly recollectiox and devotional practices; and t tional renewal of vows and to ~ rite of this renewal. To eliminate, lessen, or chang. the chapter of faults. To chanf mortification and penance impo~ constitutions. C. To change the canonic~ cloister. To extend the prohibition of tered sections also to those of tl the same prohibition. To change the law of compan approved by the Sacred Congr the approval of constitntions, e. to. leave the house without a judgment of the superior, there so." "No sister shall go out with~ superior, who should if possibl trustworthy person as her comF To legislate on silence. To change the norms on th, for correspondence. To change tion of correspondence. To change the norms on or table. To change the suffrages [or tl~ C. To change the canonica ofa professed religious to anoth~ C. To change the canonical the expiration of temporary and secularization, dismissal, professed to secular life, and t] To enact that a canonical d: [essed of perpetual vows from ai To establish or change the d~ the general chapter, e.g., three, sembly. To change the place or dat~ specified in the constitutions. To establish or change the let deferring of the general chapter, To change the date of the ass ter after the death, resignatio: mother general, e.g., three or si To establish or change ex ot general chapter given to [orm~ establish or change a system of ration, and manner of t; on seasonal devotions ) legislate on the devo- :hange the formula and the manner of holding or adapt practices of ed or encouraged in the prescriptions on the entrance into the clois- ~e same sex; to abrogate ion to one of the norms .-'.gation of Religious in ,,., "Sisters are permitted ::ompanion when, in the is a just cause for doing .ut the permission of her '.: send, a sister or some lnion. ' necessity of permission or eliminate the inspec-to eliminate reading at deceased. norms on the transfer .~ institute. norms on departure at .rofession, exclaustration :,rovisional return of a ~ charitable subsidy. smissal frees also a pro- 1 her religious vows. ~te of the convocation of six months before its as-of the general chapter th of an anticipation or e.g., three or six months. ~mbly of a general chap- 1, or deposition of the ¢ months. ficio membership in the .r superiors general. To ~lelegates for the general ÷ + ÷ Irat~lementation ol Vatican 11 VOLUME 26, 1967 ]5 ÷ ÷ ÷ .~oseph F. Gailen, $.1. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 16 or provincial chapter. To give ex officio membership in the general chapter to regional superiors. To establish that the mother general may summon others sisters who are not capitulars to assist in the clerical and similar work of the chapter, also to invite such sisters and externs to present and discuss questions with the chapter. To establish more than two tellers. To establish or change the number of capitulars who must be present for the validity of the acts of a general, provincial, or local chapter, e.g., two-thirds. To establish that a vote may be given by letter or proxy. C. To eliminate the presidency of the local ordinary at the election of the mother general or his right of con-firming this election in diocesan congregations. To enact or change a prescription that all sisters are obliged to accept any office to which they were elected. To enact or change, according to the system, a norm of the following tenor; from the date of the letter of convocation until the completion of the election of delegates, no vocal shall be transferred from one house to another; neither shall local superiors be changed until after the general or provincial chapter. In congregations divided into provinces, to establish or change the delegates to the general chapter from houses immediately subject to the mother general. To establish or change the number of de.legates to the general chapter from each province, e.g., two, three, four, five. To enact such delegates according to the number of sisters in a province. To give the provincial chapter authority to make proposals to the general chapter; to give it also the authority to make enactments for the province, which, however~ are not effective until approved by the mother general with the consent of her council. To eliminate the provincial chapter, i.e., to have the delegates elected merely by mailing in the votes from the houses to the mother provincial. To establish a norm on prudent consultation regard-ing the qualities of those eligible for office. To establish that the ballots are to be burned only after each session. To enact that before the election of the mother gen-eral, each and every capitular shall promise by oath to elect the one who, before God, she judges should be chosen. To forbid postulation in elections. To establish or change a retreat before the general or provincial chapter as also its duration and exposition of the Blessed Sacrament during it. C. To change the canonical mother general, i.e., ten years and forty years of age. To change the duration in off the length of her term; to estalz tion of her immediate reelectio: To enact that the secretary I eral are to be elected in the appointed by the mother gene, council and with or without a ~ ¯ To change the qualities reqt e.g., the age. To establish or change the n c6uncilor elected is also the assi a special election for this afv have been elected. To establish or change the n eral councilors except the assis secretary or treasurer general. To establish that the voting the chapter of affairs. To establish who have the to the general or provincial which the proposals must be p To establish that committee~, be appointed before the chapte lars by the mother general or 1 To establish that all ordina~ are to be confirmed, modified, chapter or that they remain i: abrogated by a subsequent cha[ To establish the norms on tt one province to another. C. To change the canonica nial report to the Holy See. To establish or change th~ visitation by higher superiors. To establish or exclude the for the higher superior in canor To establish or change the n another sister to make the car To enact that three general side the motherhouse. To enact the frequency of provincial, regional, and local ~ To determine the matters th a council by the law of the co~ To enact or abrogate an adx To enact the frequency of treasurer general to the mothe from the provincial and regior qualities required for a ff profession, legitimacy, ce of the mother general; lish or change a prohibi- ~.:neral and treasurer gen- 'eneral chapter or to be with the consent of her 'etermined term of office. !ired in a general official, :,rm that the first general stant general and to have ~r all general councilors orm that any of the gen- :ant general may also be ;~to be public or secret in ght of making, proposals :hapter and the time at ~sented. for the proposals are to v from among the capitu-aother provincial. ices of a general chapter or abrogated in the next ~ force until modified or transfer of a sister from norms on the quinquen-frequency of canonical aecessity of a companion ~ical visitations. wms for the delegation of 0nical visitation. councilors may live out-meetings of the general, :ouncils. at require a secret vote of ~stitutions. aonitor for superiors. tnancial reports from the general and her council, al superior to the mother ÷ ÷ Impleraentation o] Vatican II VOLUME 26, 1967 17 ÷ ÷ ÷ lo~eph F. Gallen, $.1. general; and from local superiors to the mother general, provincial, or regional superior. To establish norms for the investment of money. To establish the tax on houses, regions, and provinces for regional, provincial, and general expenses. To es-tablish norms for extraordinary taxes. C. To change the canonical norms on alienation, con-tracting of debts and obligations, or business and trade. To establish whether each province is to have its own house of studies. C. To change the canonical norms on the establish-ment, union, and suppression of provinces. C. To change the thirty years of age, legitimacy, and ten years of profession required by canon law for a mother provincial. To enact or change a higher age for the mother provin-cial, e.g., thirty-five years. To enact or change the number of provincial coun-cilors, i.e., two or four. To determine the duration in office and the norms for immediate reelection or reappointment of the mother provincial, provincial councilors, secretary, and treasurer. To enact whether all or some of these are to be appointed by the mother general with the consent of her council or elected in the provincial chapter. To determine the authority of a regional superior, the number of her councilors, frequency of council meetings, and the qualities necessary in a regional superior and officials. C. To change the canonical norms on the erection and suppression of houses. To enact that a local superior in office for sever~il suc-cessive years, e.g., six or twelve, may not again be ap-pointed local superior in any house, outside of a case of serious necessity, before the lapse of a certain number of years, e.g., one, two, three, six. To determine the number of local councilors. To establish or change a term of office for the mistress of novices; to forbid her continuation in office beyond a certain number of years, e.g., twelve. To establish that the mother general may authentically interpret the ordinances of the general chapter. To establish or change a two-thirds vote of the general chapter required for a change in the constitutions. To legislate on the juniorate, the education, and for-mation of the members of the congregation. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 18 CONSILIU~ MONASTICIM CANONICI A Monastic P Introductory Remarks [These introductory remarks wet meeting of the Canon Law Society 1966.] "The Monastic Proposal for Law" had its origin in early 1964 Canon Law Society, Monsignor Spencer Abbey. Monsignor tol~ board had decided to sponsor "in problematic areas in canonical ] which is almost wholly lacking il is such a problematic area. Mon., in the work of the Society in thi: After consulting with variot with Monsignor Harrington, it ~ the active collaboration of all the United States and Canada who enter into the project. This C( we came to call this gathering o to elaborate a proposal for mon: discussed in some general way i~ national convention and present mission for the Revision of the In the months following I vi teries and came into contact canonists. With the help of the~ tionnaire .was prepared and set periors of the United States and The whole question of mona~ into twelve topical sections. Tw( took to prepare background stm IURIS :oposal for Revision of anon Law given at the twenty-eighth ,f America, October ! 1-13, the Revision of Canon ~vhen the president of the Paul Harrington, visited me that the executive depth studies" of various .~gislation. Monastic law, the present codification, gnor invited me to assist area. ; abbots and at length as decided we would seek monastic canonists of the were willing and able to ,nsilium Monasticum, as [ monastic canonists, was ~stic law which would be a workshop of the 1965 ~.~d to the Pontifical Cora-l: ode of Canon Law. Jted over twenty monas-vith thirty-five monastic men an extensive ques-to all the monastic su- Canada in January, 1965. tic provision was divided , or three canonists under-lies in each of these areas. ÷ ÷ ÷ Monastic Proposal VOLUME 26, !.967 19 MoCnoanstsii~lluumm REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 2O As replies to the questionnaire were received, the pertinent matter was forwarded to the respective canonists. In April, 1965, twenty-five monastic canonists and scholars assem-bled for a week's meeting at New Melleray Abbey near Dubuque. Father Paul Boyle, C.P., president of the Canon Law Society, took an active part in the discussions, as did Father James Richardson, C.M., chairman of the canon law committee of the Conference of Major Superiors of Men, and Abbot Lawrence Vohs, O.S.B., chairman of the Benedictine Canon Law Committee. After the twelve topical areas had been discussed at length, the canonists voted on some sixty-four conclusions, all of which were passed by a sizable majority. In a number of cases they were unanimously adopted by all. These conclusions were then sent to the responding superiors and participating canonists, and further comment and elaboration were in-vited. In the course of the following summer a workshop took place at St. Joseph's Abbey; Spencer, Massachusetts. Since it was thought that a" concrete proposal would receive more serious attention, this workshop undertook to pre-pare a schema of such a proposal entitled "Propositum Monasticum de Codice Iuris Canonici Recognoscendo." At this time the project began to elicit international atten-tion in monastic circles. Written communications were received from all parts of the world. The summer work-shop, which was a rather informal affair, received visits from such men as the abbot general of the Olivetans, com-ing from Italy; a Benedictine Abbot from the pontifical abbey in Jerusalem; and a representative of the abbots of France, who met in Paris in July to discuss the conclusions of our meeting at New Melleray. In September, 1965, a schema of the "Propositum" was sent out to the superiors and canonists, suggestions and recommendations being again invited. In October, a meet-ing of monastic canonists was held in Chicago to consider the schema, canon by canon. At this meeting we were privi-leged to have the foremost scholar of monasticism of our times, Dom Jean Leclercq, O.S.B., a professor of the Bene-dictine International College in Rome and a peritus of the Council. While all the conclusions incorporated into the schema had bee.n adopted by a large majority of the participating canonists, unanimity had not been obtained on a number of points. In view of this the Chicago monastic meeting voted that two spokesmen should prepare a statement of the minority positions to accompany our proposals. Un-fortunately, they decided after two months of deliberation not to present their views with the "Propositum Monastio cum." As a result of this delay it was only at: their January meeting that most of the members of the Society's execu-tive board received copies of the "Proposit,um." However, i after due deliberation, the exect mously that the president of th, the "Propositum" to the chairm mission as the contribution of a the Canon Law Society of Ame president of the Society for~ Monasticum" to His Eminence, The "Propositum Monasticurr Copies were sent to all the memh mission and to the consultors co the revision. Many of them hav~ their appreciation of the work nasticum," continues to be stm throughout the world. In gener~ its contents. However, some find In conclusion I would like throughout the world are grat Society of America for the opp! nasticism to make its needs knc sion of canon law. M. Ba Chairman Spen PREFA( Under* the guidance of the S sembled at the Second Ecumenic has so enkindled the spirit of rer no matter what his rank or statu: toward the fullness of Christian ing to all men the witness of a tr This renewal of the Spirit ha,. the People of God. The Churcl~ removing the obsolete, adding both new things and old to pro, the Lord. Since the compilation and pr Code, monasticism in God's p~ all exceptionally vigorous ex[ Council gives eminent witness t~ in the Church today, when in it of religious life, it acknowledge~, importance of monasticism fox Praising the ancient monastic Council requires their adaptatk ent, "so that the monasteries wi] building up the Christian pe~ The new forms of cenobitic * This is an English translation pre[ ticum from the original Latin text wh v. 26 0966), pp. 331-357. tive board voted unani- Society should forward tn of the Revision Corn- ]committee sponsored by !ica. On February 2, the arded the "Propositum Pietro Cardinal Ciriaci. ." has been well received. ~.rs of the Pontifical Com-acerned with this area of written to us expressing The "Propositum Mo-lied by monastic groups d most have agreed with it too extensive. to say that the monks eful to the Canon Law ~rtunity it has given mo- ~n in regard to the revi-il Pennington, O.C.S.O. Consilium Monasticum St. Joseph's Abbey :er, Massachusetts 01562 :E pirit, Christ's Church, as-al Council of the Vatican, ewal that every Christian, ~, can more surely advance life and perfect love, giv-ae follower of Christ. not neglected the law of desires to revise her law, the pertinent, presenting ide for all in the house of ~mulgation of the present )vidence has experienced !ansion. The Ecumenical the value of monastic life proposals on the renewal both the past and present the Church and society. traditions of service, the ,n to the needs of the pres- 1 be, as it were, sources for ple." ~nd eremitic life rising in ared by the Consilium Monas-ich was published in the Jurist, ÷ ÷ ÷ Monastic Proposal VOLUME 26, 1967 21 Consillum Monosticum REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS many parts of the world today are further indications of monastic vitality. The eremitical life, a ,~ery special ex-pression of monasticism, is to be highly esteemed; for, by God's grace, it engendered men of great h61iness through-out the Christian centuries. The revised Code must neces-sarily provide some legislation to foster and strengthen this way of life. It is fitting that monks take part in the renewal of the law they are to live by. Living in a monastic milieu, follow-ing a rule hallowed by centuries, they more aptly know by experience the authentic needs and desires of this partic-ular way of life. Through this "Proposal" monastic canon-ists from various institutes and countries wish to humbly offer their collaboration, so that the new, corpus of law will be such that all monks may pursue a more faithful and fruitful monastic life before the People of God and all mankind. A concrete proposal of a Titulus:for the revised Code is presented, to obtain, in a complete and orderly way, more satisfactory norms for monks. Since the promulgation of the present Code deeper his-torical and theolo'gical studies of monasticism have been made in various monastic orders and congregations, grad-ually restoring authentic spirit and meaning. Scientific investigations of the ordo monasticus (order of monks) and monastic law have been very fruitful. The Sacred Congre-gation for Religious has issued many documents in our day pertaining to monasticism, e,g., the Law Proper to the Confederation of Monastic Congregations o~ the Order of Saint Benedict, confirmed by Pope Pius XII, and the legis-lation for nuns which has practically revised their entire law. Pius XII's radio addresses to cloistered nuns concern-ing the contemplative life should also be cited. Further-more,: ample provision for monks has been made in the Oriental Code. From these various documents it is evident that the Holy See is vitally concerned about the needs of monasticism. References can be inserted in the monastic title to those laws for religious which may be proportionately applied to monks--in a manner exemplified in Title XVII of Book II of the present Code. The sources given in this Proposal for each canon are not exhaustive. Only those texts issued by the Holy See since the promulgation of the present Code are cited. How-ever, because of its authority, discretion, and paramount influence on Western monasticism we frequently cite the Rule of Saint Benedict, that father and legislator of monks, under whose patronage we humbly offer this "Proposal." Consilium Monasticum Iuris Canonici Office of the Moderator Saint Joseph's Abbey Spencer, Massachusetts 01562 MONASTIC LIFE or THE Section 1. Monastic life. Chapter 1. Monasteries an Article I. Monasteries] Article 2. Federation. Chapter 2. Internal mona Article 1. Admission. Article 2. Studies. Article 3. Obligations Article 4. Transfer. Article 5. Egress. ORDER OF MONKS federation. tic law. Section 2. Specific forms of rc 3nastic life. Chapter 1. Cenobitic life. Article 1. Government. Article 2. Apostolate. Chapter 2. Eremitical life Chapter 3. Integral conte aplative life. 1-22 4-10 4-6 7-10 11-22 11-14 15-16 17-18 19-20 21-22 23--42 23-30 24-28 29-30 31-38 39-42 Monmtic Proposal VOLUME 26, 1967 23 MONASTIC LIFE or THE ORDER OF MONKS SECTION 1 MONASTIC LIFE .÷ ÷ ÷ C~onsilium Monasticum REVIEW FOR REL]GIdU~; 24 Canon 1 It is of great importance to the Church that the conse-crated life, lived according to :the monastic traditions preserved through the centuries, should continuously be adapted to time and place, that there might always be men of prayer unceasingly imploring divine mercy, draw-ing down every heavenly blessing upon the People of God. NOTE: Monastic life is distinguished" from other forms of religious life because of its proper characteristics, which are expressed in the various monastic rules, among which, in the West, the Rule of Saint Benedict ~holds a special place. In this form of life "the principal occupation is to pray to God" (John XXIII, Allocution, Vos paterno animo). The apostolic significance of this has in our days become more evident. Solitude and separation from the world pertain to every religious: "Every vocation dedi-cated to God requires them, each in its own proper way" (cf. Pius XII, Allocution, Haud mediocri, Feb. 11, 1958). However in the monastic life they have a very special meaning, both for the Church and for civil society, as Paul VI has clearly taught (cf. Allocution, Quale salute, Oct. 24, 1964). Stability in this state is confirmed "by vows, or by other sacred bonds (e.g., promise, oath, con-secration: c[. Pius XII, Apostolic Const., Provida Mater Ecclesia, Feb. 2, 1947, art. III, par. 2, no. 1) which are like vows in their purpose." (Second Vatican Council, Dogmatic Const. on the Church, chap. 6; no. 44). The order of monks, then, "though it is not of the hierarchical structure of the Church, nevertheless undeniably belongs to its life and holiness" (ibid.). SOURCES: Rule of St. Benedict, chs. 4, 43, 50, 66, 73; Second Vatican Council, Decree on the Renewal of Re-ligious Life, nos. 2, 5, 9; Decree on the Missionary Activity of the Church, nos. 18, 40; Benedict XV, Encyclical Letter, Principi Apostolorum, Oct. 5, 1920; Plus X'I, Epistle, Non sine animi, Male 28, 1923; Apostolic Const., Umbratilem remotamque wtam, July 8, 1924; Apostolic Letter, Monachorum vita, Jan. 26, 1925; Encyclical Letter, Rerum Ecclesiae, Feb. 28, 1926; Pius XII, Encyclical Letter, Fulgens radiatur, Mar. 21, 1947; Epistle, Sedecim ante saeculis, Mar. 25, 1948; Apostolic Const., Sponsa Christi, Nov. 21, 1950; Apostolic Letter, Postquam apostolicis, Feb. 9, 1952, canon 31M par. 3; Allocution, Omnibus probe, Sept. 24, 1953; Encyclical Letter, Ecclesiae fastos, June 5, 1954; E.pistle, Sexto decimo revoIuto, May 31, 1956; Allocution, Nous sommes heureux, Apr. 11, 1958; John XXIII, Allocutions, Vos paterno animo, Sept. 25, 1959; Allocution, Notre joie, Oct. 20, 1960; Epistle, Recens a te, Oct. 20, 1960; Paul VI, Allocution, Quale salute, Oct. 24, 1964; Sacred Congregation for Religious, Instruc-tion, Inter praeclara, Nov. 23, 1950. Canon 2 The dispositions concerning monks, even when ex-pressed in the masculine gender, apply equally to nuns, unless it appears otherwise from the context or from the nature of the case. NOTE: Everyone is well aware that women have entered more fruitfully into public affairs. They are becoming continuously more conscious of. their full human dignity. It is wholly undesirable then that they should find them-selves treated as inferiors or minors in the law of the Church. It seems that the law for nuns regarding regular superi-ors should be so revised as to exempt both them and their monasteries, making them solely dependent on the regular superiors of their own order. The principal rea-son for this is to safeguard the spirit proper to theorder. But no one can fail to see the difficulties in having two superiors and having to seek direction from both in many matters. The local ordinary should retain the right and duty to supply for deficiencies if the regular superior is seriously neglectful. But in general, the abbess should rule her own monastery without masculine intervention. To obtain a suitable renewal of the legislation for nuns, their desires and recommendations can be ascer-tained from meetings of federations or from other legiti-mately convoked assemblies. SOURCES: Code of Canon Law, canon 490; John XXIII, Encyclical Letter, Pacem in terris, Apr. I 1, 1963; Paul VI, Allocution, E motivo, Sept. 8, 1965; Sacred Congregation for Religious, Decree Ior the Order o[ Re[ormed Cister-clans, Dec. 27, 1965, no. 5. Canon 3 Monastic institutes by their nature are neither clerical nor lay. ~qthout prejudice to their constitutions and par-ticular laws, they are subject to the canons that follow. NOTE: Monastic life is not an intermediate state be-tween the clerical and lay states in the divine hierarchical structure of the Church. Rather, the faithful are called by God from both these states of life to enjoy this particu-lar gift in the life of the Church and thus each in his own way to assist in her salvific mission. SOURCES: Code of Canon Law, canon 488, no. 4; Second Vatican Council, Dogmatic Const. on the Church, no. 43; Plus XII, Allocution, Annus sacer, Dec. 8, 1950, part I; Apostolic Letter, Postquam apostolicis, Feb. 9, 1952, canon 314, par. 3. CHAPTER 1 MONASTERIES AND FEDERATION Article 1--Monasteries Canon 4 1. A monastery, a dwelling in which monastic life is lived, is designated autonomous if the community, in re- Monastic Proposal VOLUME 26, 1967 25 ÷ Consillum M onasticura REVIEW FOR REI'IGIOUS gard to the ordinary monastic regimen, rules itseff through an abbot, over whom in the internal government there is no other ordinary superior. 2. In law, the term monastery includes also a laura; and the term abbot, any superior of a monastery, without prej-udice to the particular prescriptions in the constitutions of each institute. NOTE: 1. For the sake of clarity the term monastery is here canonically determined as "a dwelling in which monastic life is lived." In law nothing is so dangerous as to call things by the same name, or include them under a single term, when they are to be guided by different norms. It is expedient that things which are to be subject to di-verse laws be distinguished by different names. The concept of an autonomous monastery, already found in the Code, is defined here following the thought common to the authors. Cf. A. Larraona in Commentar,um pro religiosis, III (1922), pp. 133 ff.; A. Vermeersch in Periodica, X (1922), pp. (7) ff.; J. Konrad, The Transfer of Religious to Anott~er Community (Catholic University Press: Washington, 1949), pp. 94 ft.; U. Beste, Introductio in Codicem, ed. 5 (D'Auria: Naples, 1956), p. 331. 2. A laura, the union of several hermitages under one moderator or spiritual father, can be autonomous like a monastery. It belongs to the constitutions of each monastic institute to determine which superiors are to re-ceive the name of abbot or the equivalent office. SOURCES: Pius XII, Encyclical Letter, Fulgens radiatur, Mar. 21, 1947; Homily, Exultent hodie, Sept. 18, 1947; Apostolic Const., Sponsa Christi, Nov. 21~ 1950: General Statutes, art. VI; Apostolic Letter, Postquam apostolicis, Feb. 9, 1952, canons 8; 313, par. 2. Canon 5 1. For the erection of an exempt monastery, in addi-tion to the requirements of the statutes of each institute, the approval of the Apostolic See and the written con-sent of the local ordinary are necessary. 2. The local ordinary may establish a monastery, even an autonomous one, in which the members will seek evan-gelical perfection according to the rules and traditions of monasticism; but he must first consult the Apostolic See or at least the national Conference of Bishops. 3. In the case of nuns who pertain to an order, it is fur-ther required that they be affiliated by an abbot of the first order, at least in regard to spiritual care. 4. The erection of a monastery or the permission to es-tablish a new monastery includes authorization to have a church or public oratory and to carry out sacred func-tions there; it also includes, without prejudice to condi-tions laid down in the decree of erection or the permission, authorization for all the devout works proper to the mon-astery according to its statutes. NOTE: 1. This is the present law. 2. Under the present law a bishop may establish a religious congregation (canon 492, par. 1). Why may he not also establish a monastery? It is certainly desirable that monasteries be formed in federations (i.e., congregations) and confederations, which provide mutual aid both spiritual and temporal. Neverthe-less, each monastic institute has its own proper rule and constitutions which to some extent limit the expressions of monasticism possible within the institute. Provision is needed, especially today, for the expressions evolving from fruitful monastic traditions. The diocesan setting seems most suitable for these experiments, as it has been for new religious congregations and, in an earlier tradition, for the foundation of new monasteries. Ordinarily at the present time when a monk, led by the Spirit, undertakes an experiment in monasticisrn under episcopal auspices, he must seek an indult of exclaustration, or even of secularization, relinquishing his canonical status as a monk. This is not canonical equity. 3. This provision, in force already for tertiaries tcanon 492, par. 1), is advocated so that nuns may receive a ormation according to the true spirit of their own in-stitute (cf. Pius XII, Radio Message. Cddant volontiers, luly 19, 1958), and also other assistance according to the particular form of affiliation. 4. This is the present law. SOURCES: 1. Code of Canon Law, canon 497, par. 1; Pius XII, Apostolic Letter, Postquam apostolicis, Feb. 9, 1952, canon 8, par. 3. 2. Code of Canon Law, canon 492, par. I; Second Vatican Council, Deo'ee on the Renewal of Re-ligious LiJe, no. 19; Pius XII, Apostolic Letter, Postquam apostolicis, Feb. 9, 1952, canon 8, par. 1. 3. Code of Canon Law, canon 492, par. 1; Plus XII, Radio Message, Cddant volontiers, July 19, 1958; Sacred Congregation for Religious, Epistle to the Apostolic Nuncios, Mar. 7, 1951. 4. Code of Canon Law, canon 497, par. 1; Pius XII, Apostolic Letter, Postquara apostollcls, Feb. 9, 1952, canon 9, par. 1. Canon 6 I. Preserving always the spirit of evangelical poverty, every monastery can acquire and possess temporalities with stable revenues. 2. The temporalities are to be administered according to the norms of the constitutions and the prescriptions of canons 532, 536, and 537. NOTE: According to monastic tradition and the common law of the Church, each monastery, as a moral person, has the right to acquire, retain, "and administer temporal goods, and the obligation to provide a suitable home and sustenance for its monks. The value and need of a spirit of poverty, which is an essential of the Christian message and a first principle of monasticism, does not exempt monks from having a proper esteem for the economic order and from using material goods in conformity with Monastic Proposal VOLUME 26, 1967 + ÷ ÷ Consilium M onasticum REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS their state. They should be most eager and generous in coming to the aid of the poor. In a true spirit of poverty, they should keep only what is useful to the community, lest their wealth become an occasion of discord, envy, or pride. The faculties concerning administration which are found in the Rescript, Gum admotae, of Nov. 6, 1964, should be incorporated into the common law and be extended to all abbots. SOURCES: Rule of St. Benedict, chs. 31-34, 66; Code of Canon Law, canons 496; 531-532; 1495, par. 2; Second Vatican Council, Decree on the Renewal of Religious Lqe, no. 13; Pius XII, Radio Message, Oggi al compiersi, Sept. 1, 1944; Apostolic Letter, Postquam apostolicis, Feb. 9, 1952, canons 63-64; John XXIII, Encyclical Letter, Mater et Magistra, May 15, 1961; Paul VI, Encyclical Letter, Ecclesiam Suam, Aug. 6, 1964. Article 2---Federation Canon 7 Federations of monasteries, unions of several autono-mous monasteries under one superior, while maintaining the principle of autonomy, are highly recommended, to promote true monastic life and to foster the full develop-ment of each monk in his vocation. NOTE: Because monastic congregations have the nature of federated unions, the term "federation," which is found in the Apostolic Constitution, Sponsa Christi (General Statutes, article VII), seems preferable. In a federation each monastery retains its own proper independence and juridic personality. The superior of the union can use the title of Abbot President, Abbot General, or Archabbot. His powers within the federation, which are determined by the constitutions, are ordinarily to be quite restricted. SOURCES: Code of Canon Law, canon 488, no. 2; Second Vatican Council, Decree on the Renewal of Religious Life, no. 22; Pius XII, Homily, Exsultent hodie, Sept. 18, 1947; Apostolic Const., Sponsa Christi, Nov. 21, 1950: General Statutes, art. VII; Apostolic Letter, Postquam apostolicis, Feb. 9, 1952, canons 11; 313, par. 1, no. 1; Allocution, Omnibus probe, Sept. 24, 1953; Radio Message, Lorsque Nous. Aug. 2, 1958; John XXIII, Allocution, Notre joie, Oct. 20, 1960; Epistle, II tempio massimo, July 2, 1962; Sacred Congregation for Religious, Instruction, Inter praeclara, Nov. 23, 1950, no. XVII; Epistle to the Apostolic Nuncios, Mar. 7, 1951. Canon 8 Confederations, fraternal associations of several mo-nastic federations under one primate, are also strongly recommended. NOTE: Confederations of monastic federations are to be set up that through the fraternal unity and cooperation of the federations, according to the norms and within the limits defincd by the Holy See, monastic life will be faith- fully upheld. Adapted to the needs of our days, it will be sustained by the fraternal assistance in personnel, posses-sions, and activities shared among the federations. SOURCES: Second Vatican Council, Decree on the Re-newal of Religious Life, no. 22; Pius XII, Homily, Ex-sultent hodie, Sept. 18, 1947; Apostolic Const., Sponsa Christi, Nov. 21, 1950: General Statutes, art. VII; Apostolic Letter, Postquam apostolicis, Feb. 9, 1952, canon 313, par. 1, no. 1; Brief, Pacis vinculum, Mar. 21, 1952; Allocution, Omnibus probe, Sept. 24, 1953; Radio Message, Lorsque Nous, Aug. 2, 1958; John XXI/I, Allocution, Vos paterno animo, Sept. 25, 1959; Sacred Congregation for Religious, Decree of Mar. 21, 1952, "Lex propria," nos. 4, 21, 22. Canon 9 The establishment of a federation or confederation with its own proper laws is reserved to the Apostolic See. Such unions exercise only an office of service toward the monasteries and the monks, especially through visitation, appellate judicature, and fraternal assistance. NOTE: Federation and confederation presuppose some general laws accepted by all the monasteries but do not exclude particular norms and customs in each monastery. The list of functions of a federation or confederation in the canon is not exhaustive. SOURCES: Code of Canon Law, canons 488, no. 8; 501, par. 3; Pius XI, Encyclical Letter, Quadragesimo anno, May 15, 1931; Plus XII, Apostolic Const., Sponsa Christi, Nov. 21, 1950: General Statutes, art. VII; Apostolic Letter, Postquam apostolicis, Feb. 9, 1952, canons 11; 28; 41, par. 2; Brief, Pacis vinculum, Mar. 21, 1952; John XXIII, Encyclical Letter, Mater et Magistra, May 15, 1961; En-cyclical Letter, Pacem in terris, Apr. 11, 1963; Sacred Congregation for Religious, Instruction, Inter praeclara, Nov. 23, 1950, nos. XXIII-XXIV; Decree of Mar. 21, 1952, "Lex propria," Ratio institutionis praesertim studiorum O.C.S.O., Nov. 27, 1959, Introd.; nos. 25 ft. CHAPTER 2 INTERNAL MONASTIC LAW Article 1--Admission Canon I0 1. Each autonomous monastery has an inherent right to have its own novitiate. 2. If a monastery is incapable of fulfilling the prescrip- ÷ tions concerning the formation of novices, the abbot has a + serious obligation to send them to another monastery. + NOTE: Monastic formation implies that monks in the service of Christ the Lord, the true King, are instructed, trained, and formed as integral men to Christian perfec-tion through prayer, contemplation of divine realities, and legitimate apostolic activity. Monastic Proposal VOLUME 26, 1967 ~9 + ÷ ÷ onsillum Monasticum REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS According to Saint Benedict and other monastic fathers, a monk lives in a permanent family under a rule and abbot, who holds the place of Christ. Therefore novices and professed, in so far as possible, should be formed in their own monastery. SOURCES: Rule o[ St. Benedict, Prologue, chs. 1, 58; Pius XI, Apostolic Letter, Monachorura vitae, Jan. 26, 1925; Plus xII, Apostolic Letter, Postquam apostolicis, Feb. 9, 1952, canon 86; Sacred Congregation for Religious, Ratio institutionis praesertira studiorum O.C.S.O., Nov. 27, 1959, nos. 11-12. Canon 11 The abbot may train all his novices without distinc-tion in one novitiate under one director. NOTE: In view of the gradual development that has taken place among those who under theP aternal authority of .th.e abbot make up the monastic family, a single novxuate is required, returning to a unity and simplicity which is more consonant with monastic traditions: This is true even if different members take a greater or lesser part in the celebration of the Divine Office. SOURCES: Second Vatican Council, Decree on the Re-newal o[ Religious Li[e, no. 15; Sacred Congregation for Religious. Decree for the French (Solesmes) Congregation O.S.B., Apr. 8, 1965; Decree [or the Order o[ Re[ormed Cistercians, Dec. 27, 1965, no. 1. Canon 12 In admitting candidates the constitutions are to be fol-lowed, sa[eguarding canons 538, 541-546, 581, and 582. NOTE: It should be noted that the impediments to the novitiate need to be clarified. The text of canon 542 places in grave doubt the validity of many professions which per-haps are never questioned. For example, how would one determine "fraud" in the case of a candidate who did not properly represent his true character? Canon 544, also, needs to be simplified. Canon 13 The whole o[ monastic formation pertains properly to the father of the monastery. However it is ordinarily ex-pedient that a novice master be named, following can-ons 559-560. Under the direction of the abbot, he will guide the formation of the novices according to the pro-gram proper to the institute. NOTE: This is the present law. SOURCES: Rule of St. Benedict, chs. 2, 58; Code of Canon Law, canons 559-562; Pius XII, Apostolic Const., Sedes Sapientiae, May 31, 1956; Sacred Congregation for Re-ligious, General Statutes, July 7, 1956, art. 19, par. I; Ratio institutionis praesertim studiorum O.C.S.O., Introd., par. 20; nos. 2-5. Canon 14. After a novitiate of at least one year, and another pro-longed probation with some form of commitment, of at least three years according to the constitutions, profes-sion is made with the consent of the chapter and the mo-nastic blessing is received from the father of the monas-tery; and thus the monk becomes a member of the com-munity forever. NOTE: The profession of a monk is fundamentally a lifelong commitment before God to the monastic way of life. Therefore, the distinction between simple and solemn profession or temporary and perpetual vows is not suit-able for monks. During the prolon.ged probation, which certainly should precede a monasuc consecration which is perpetual and inviolable, it is fitting that some sort of bond exist--a promise, an oath, but preferably not a vow properly so called (so that the full significance of the monastic consecration through monastic vows is not ob-scured: "The Church not only raises the religious profes-sion to the dignity of a canonical state by her approval, but even manifests that this profession is a state conse-crated to God by the liturgical setting of that profes-sion."-- Second Vatican Council, Dogmatic Constztution on the Church, no. 45). Through this bond the candidate, in a way which is proportionate to the nature of the bond and the time involved, commits himself to the community and is dedicated to God. This bond could be perpetual on ¯ the part of the subject (e.g., first vows in the Society of Jesus). The obligation it places on the community in-creases with time (cf. below, canon 21). SOURCES: Rule of St. Benedict. chs. 3, 58; Code of Canon Law, canons 572, par. 2; 574-575; Second Vatican Council, Dogmatic Const. on the Church, no. 44; Pius XII, Apostolic Const., Sponsa Christi, Nov. 21, 1950: Gen-eral Statutes, art. III, par. 2; Apostolic Letter, Postquam apostolicis, Feb. 9, 1952, canons 108-109; 112, par. 2; Apostolic Const., Sedes Sapienliae, May 31, 1956; Sacred Congregation for Religious, General Statutes, July 7, 1956, art. 7-8. Article 2--Studies Canon 15 1. Every autonomous monastery may have its own scho-lasticate. 2. If a monastery is not able to have a properly qnalified scholasticate, the monks shall be sent for studies to the scholasticate of another monastery or of a religious insti-tute which does meet the necessary requirements, or to the courses at a diocesan seminary. NOTE: Cf. the note under canon 10 above. SOURCES: Code of Canon Law, canon 587; Pius XII, Apostolic Letter, Postquam apostolicis, Feb. 9, 1952, canon 123: Sacred Congregation for Religious, Ratio institutionis + ÷ Monastic Proposal VOLUME~ 26, 1967 ÷ ÷ ÷ Consilium M onastivum REVIEW FOR REklGIOUS prae'sertim studiorum O.C.S.O., Nov. 27, 1959, Introd., par: 9~ no. 31. Canon 16 In regard to the program of studies, each institute should follow its own particular statutes, approved by the Apostolic See, providing an integral monastic formation, and also a full priestly training for those who are destined. to the priesthood. This formation should be inspired by the gospels, in harmony with tradition, drawing from the font of the liturgy, adapted to the present day, and inti. mately united with the celebration of the sacred liturgy and the contemplation of divine realities. NOTE: In the Apostolic Constitution, Sedes Sapientiae, and the accompanying General Statutes, Plus XII in-structed each institute to have its own program of forma-tion, especially for studies, adapted to the particular needs and circumstances of the institute. The monastic pro-gram ought to provide not only for the clerics, but for all the members of the monastic family, including the lay brothers, if there be such. "The primary, if not the sole purpose of those who have consecrated themselves to God is to pray to Him and to contemplate or meditate on divine realities; now how can they fulfill this important duty unless they have a profound and thorough knowledge of the teachings of our faith?"--Pius XI, Apostolic Epistle, Unigenitus Dei Filius, Mar. 19, 1924, no. 5. SOURCES: Second Vatican Council, Const. on the Sacred Liturgy, nos. 16-17; Decree on the Renewal of Religious Lqe, no. 18; Decree on Priestly Formation; Pius XI, Apostolic Epistle, Unigenitus Dei Filius, Mar. 19, 1924; Pius XII, Apostolic Const., Sedes Sapientiae, May 31, 1956; Sacred Congregation . for Religious, General Statutes, July 7, 1956, art. 19; Ratzo ~nstztutmn,s praesert~m stu&orum O.C.S.O., Nov. 27, 1959, no. 32; Decree for the French (Solesmes) Congregation O.S.B., Apr. 8, 1965; Decree the Order of Reformed Cistercians, Dec. 27, 1965; Sacred Congregation of Rites, Instruction, Inter Oecumenici Concilii, Sept. 26, 1964, nos. 11-12, 18. Article 3.--Obligations Canon 17 All monks are bound to offer daily the prayer of the Church in a form approved by the Church, according to the norms of their statutes. NOTE: Tradition has always assigned to monks the duty of prayer. In some monastic institutes, due to the develop-ment among the various members of the monastic family, recognized by the Second Vatican Council (Decree on the Renewal of Religious LiIe, no. 15), all are now acknowl-edged to be truly monks. They have diverse duties and functions, even in regard to the Divine Office or some other public prayer of the Church, their participation being determined by the abbot, weighing individual ob- ¯ ligations and talents. Therefore it is necessary for common law to allow the constitutions of each monastic institute to specify the personal and choral obligations of its mem-bers. Moreover, it Should be noted that hermits, true monks, have their own proper traditions in this matter. SOURCES: Rule of St. Benedict, chs. 18, 43, 50; Second Vatican Council, Const. on the Sacred Liturgy, nos. 95, 98; Decree on the Renewal of Religious Life, nos. 9, 15; Pius XII, Encyclical Letter, Fulgens radiatur, Mar. 21, 1947; Apostolic Const., Sponsa Christi, Nov. 21, 1950: General Statutes, art. V; Apostolic Letter, Postquam apos-tolio's, Feb. 9, 1952, canon 157; John XXIII, Allocution, Vos paterno anirao, Sept. 25,.1959; Sacred Congregation for Religious, Decree for the French (Solesmes) Congre-gation O.S.B., Apr. 8,' 1965; Decree for the Order of Re. formed Cistercians, Dec. 27, 1965; Sacred Congregation of Rites, Instruction, Inter Oecumenici Concilii, Sept. 26, 1964, no. 82. Canon 18 Monastic work should be in keeping with the rule, constitutions, and traditions of each institute, assuring, with the aid of divine providence, appropriate support for the community. NOTE: All monks, including contemplatives, are obliged to manual or intellectual work by the natural law and by their duty of penance and reparation. Moreover, labor is a standard means of withdrawing the soul from dangers and guiding it toward spiritual horizons; it tenders part-nership with divine providence in the natural and super-natural orders; in labor charity matures. As the axiom, "ora et labora," proclaims, work has always been a basic norm and law of monastic life. However work is only one of the traditional triad: labor, liturgy, and lectio (sacred reading). A harmonious equilibrium must be maintained among these three. SOURCES: Rule of St. Benedict, chs. 4, 48; Second Vati-can Council, Decree on the Renewal of Religious Life, no. 13; Pius XII, Encyclical Letter, Fulgens radmtur, Mar. 21, 1947; Apostolic Const., Sponsa Christi, Nov. 21, 1950: General Statutes, art. VIII; Radio Message, Si Nous avons, July 26, 1958; Radio Message, Lorsque Nous, Aug. 2, 1958; John XXIII, Allocution, Notre joie, Oct. 20, 1960; Epistle, Recens a te, Oct. 20, 1960; Sacred Congregation for Religious, Instruction, Inter praeclara, Nov. 23, 1950; nos, XXVI-XXVII; Epistle to the Apostolic Nun-cios, Mar. 7, 1951. Article 4.--Trans[er Canon 19 A monk may transfer from one autonomous monastery to another with the permission of both abbots and the consent of the chapter of the recipient monastery. NOTE: Here transfer is limited to within the order of monks, where monastic status will remain intact. A transfer to another form of consecrated life requires the. authorizati6n of the Apostolic See. ÷ ÷ ÷ Mmfastic Proposal VOLUME 26, 1967 To require and accept, without requiring further re-course, the judgment of the abbots, who are close to the situation and know the monk better, is fully consonant with monastic tradition and the "principle of subsidi-arity." (Cf. Pius XI, Encyclical Letter, Quadragesimo anno, May 15, 1931; John XXIII, Encyclical Letter, Mater et Magistra, May 15, 1961.) SOURCES: Rule of St. Benedict, chap. 61; Code o{ Canon Law, canon 632; Plus XII, Apostolic Letter, Postquam apostolicis, Feb. 9, 1952, canon 182, par. 1; Sacred Con-gregation for Religious, Decree of Mar. 21, 1952, "Lex propria," nos. 77, 96. Canon 20 A monk transferring to another institute must make a new novitiate or profession according to the require-ments of its constitutions. If the constitutions enjoin no obligation, novitiate is omitted and, after a trial period, the monk is definitively incorporated or returns to his original monastery. NOTE: Because the fundamental principles of the mo-nastic life are common to all monastic institutes, the repetition of the novitiate is not necessary; but because each institute has its own customs and traditions, some period of probation in the new institute is called for. However, if the probation is unduly prolonged this would be contrary to equity toward the monk and the other institute. SOURCES: Rule of St. Benedict, chs. 1, 61; Code of Canon Law, canons 633-634; Plus XII, Apostolic Letter, Postquam apostolicis, Feb. 9, 1952, canon 183, par. 2. Article 5.--Egress Consilium Monasticum REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS Canon 21 In regard to the departure of members the constitu-tions of each institute and, with due proportion, canons 638-641, 646, and 668 are to be observed, as well as the following: 1. The abbot of an autonomous monastery with his council's consent, manifested by secret voting, can dis-miss or dispense a member from the commitment under-taken during the probation period. 2. In the case of a dismissal, there is a grave obligation in conscience to have truly proportionate causes and to give the member full liberty to make his response. 3. For the dismissal of a professed monk, the confirma-tion of the Sacred Congregation is required; therefore the abbot must immediately forward to it the decree of dismissal, the evidence, and the monk's responses. 4. The subject has the right, during ten days on which he can act, to appeal to the Apostolic See against the decree of dismissal. While this appeal is pending, a dis-missal has no juridic effect. NOTE: In restoring a member to secular life, a simplifi-cation of processes and the application of the "principle of subsidiarity" are very desirable. The local abbot and his counselors can better judge a case than a superior who is far removed. Such a procedure is more in accord with the concept of an autonomous monastery. The rights of the members are properly safeguarded by the power of appeal to the Holy See and, in the case of the professed monk, by the required confirmation of the Sacred Congre-gation. Note well that "professed monk" here means a member definitively incorporated into the community by monastic profession which is of its nature perpetual (cf. canon 14.). SOURCES: Rule of St. Benedict, chap. 28; Code of Canon Law, canons 646-648, 656-662, 666, 668; Secretary of State, Rescript, Cure admotae, Nov. 4, no. 14. Canon 22 Dismissal frees the subject from all his commitments, including monastic vows, except those connected with major orders, safeguarding the prescriptions of canon 641, paragraph 1. NOTE: It seems more profitable to his spiritual well-being to free one dismissed from all his commitments to monastic life, as is ordinarily done in present practice. SOURCES: Code of Canon Law, canons 640, par. 1; 648. SECTION 2 SPECIFIC FORMS OF MONASTIC LIFE CENOBITIC LIFE Canon 23 The cenobitic life is one lived in community under a rule and an abbot, following Christ together in fraternal love, radiating in the Church a witness of generous, vigi-lant apostolic life. NOTE: Rule here is not limited to some rule already ap-proved by the Apostolic See, but extends to any rule, based on the ancient traditions, which may be approved in the future. That the abbot govern his community under the guidance of a rule is essential to maintain a stable and peaceful community life under an extensive personal authority. "Together" (in communi) is the element which distinguishes the cenobite from the hermit. SOURCES: Rule of St. Benedict, Prologue, chap. 1; Sec-ond Vatican Council, Decree on the Renewal o[ Religious Li[e, no. 15; Pius XI, Apostolic Letter, Monachorum vita, Jan. 26, 1925; Plus xII Encyclical Letter, Fulgens radi- + + + Monastic Proposal VOLUME 26, 1967 35 ÷ ÷ ~on~ilium Monasticum REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS atur, Mar. 21, 1947; Epistle, Sedecim ante saecula, Mar. 25, 1948; Epistle, Sexto decimo revoluto, May 31, 1956; Allocution, Nous sommes heureux, Apr. 11, 1958; Sacred Congregation for Religious, Ratio institutionis praesertim studiorum O.C.S.O., Nov. 27, 1959, Introd., par. 5; nos. I, 6, 11. Article 1.--Government Canon 24 I. The abbot, father and shepherd of his monks in the spiritual and temporal orders, should have a long, even life-tenure of office, as long as he remains capable of ful-filling his duties, unless the constitutions provide other-wise. 2. The importance and gravity of the abbatial office requires of abbots and equivalent superiors that they tender their resignation, on their own initiative or at the invitation of competent authority, when the pressure advanced age or another serious cause undermines the proper execution of their office. NOTE: Although the abbot's spiritual paternity of its nature does not require perpetuxty in office, but only a rather extended term, nevertheless through the centuries life-tenure has almost always prevailed. (Cf. P. Salmon, L'abbd clans la tradition monastique [Paris, Sirey, 1962].) Such tenure is more desirable where more rests on the discretion and judgment of the superior lest there be incessant change, a cause of instability in men and organizations. Nevertheless common law should respect particular traditions which favor temporary abbots. But what is most important is that the constitutions of each institute provide very practical means whereby an incapable abbot can be released from office. An example can be drawn from the Declarations of the Subiaco Con-gregation of the Order of Saint Benedict: If it happens that an abbot through infirmity, age, or some other just cause becomes incapable of governing his monastery and tend-ers his resignation, it is sent to the Abbot General, who examines and decides the matter with the consent of his council. ; if however the abbot does not offer his resignation, ,the Abbot Visitor, with the greatest charity, should firmly admonish fiim to resign or request a co-adjutor before the monastery suffers from a lack of proper government. If the admonition fails, the Visitor is obliged to inform the chapter. ; when the chapter is not in session, the Visitor, with the counsel of other superiors in the province, examines and decides the case according to his own conscience. However the Abbot General's confirmation of the decision is required for validity. (No. 197) SOURCES: Rule o~ St. Benedict, chs. 2, 31, 49, 64, 65; Code of Canon Law, canons 505, 530; Second Vatican Council, Decree on the Pastoral O0~ce of Bishops in the Church, no. 21; Pius XII, Apostolic Letter, Fulgens radiatur, Mar. 21, 1947; Apostolic Letter, Postquam apos-tolicis, Feb. 9, 1952, canon 32, par. 1; Allocution, Nous sommes heureux, Apr. 11, 1958; Sacred Congregation for Religious, Ratio institutionis praesertim studiorum O.C.S.O., Nov. 27, 1959, Introd., par. 20; nos. 2, 20, 23, 30, 35; Decree Ior the French (Solesmes) Congregation O.S.B., Apr. 8, 1965. Canon 25 From the day of his installation the abbot, besides the other rights of major superiors, has jurisdiction in both forums, according to the norms of the constitutions. NOTE: Jurisdiction is essential for an abbot to fulfill his oblig.ations as spiritual father and shepherd of his community. SOURCES: Rule of St. Benedict, chs. 2, 3, 60, 62, 64, 65; Code of Canon Law, canons 488, no. 8; 501, par. 1; 503; 514, par. 1; 647; 896; 1395, par. 3; 1579, par. 1; 2385; 2386; Pius XII, Apostolic Const., Sponsa Christi, Nov. 21, 1950: General Statutes, art. VI, no. 2; Apostolic Letter, Post-quam apostolicis, Feb. 9, 1952, canons 26; 46, par. 1. Canon 26 Abbots, legitimately elected, should within three months of their election receive the abbatial blessing; and then they may use the abbatial insignia. NOTE: This is in accord with canon 625 oE the present law. The insignia which traditionally belong to the ab-batial office signify the autonomy of the monastery. SOURCES: Code of Canon Law, canon 625; Pius XII, Apostolic Letter, Postquam apostolicis, Feb. 9, 1952, canon 174. Canon 27 1. The abbot may call his monks to the priesthood or diaconate, providing them with dimissorial letters in conformity with the norms of common law and the con-stitutions of the institute. 2. The canonical title for the ordination of a monk is that of the monastery of his stability. NOTE: This is the present law. SOURCES: Rule of St. Benedict, chap. 62; Code of Canon Law, canons 964, no. 2; 982, par. 1; Pius XII, Apostolic Letter, Postquam apostolicis, Feb. 9, 1952, canon 132; Sacred Congregation for Religious, Instruction, Quantum religiones omnes, Dec. 1, 1931, no. 16; Ratio institutionis praesertim studiorum O.C.S.O., Nov. 27, 1959, nos. 26, 33. Canon 28 1. The abbot should summon the community for counsel on all important matters, as determined by the constitutions; for lesser matters he need only consult the council of seniors. ÷ ÷ ÷ Monastic Proposal VOLUME. 26, "1967 Consiliura Monastieum REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 2. All who have been definitively received into the monastic family have voice in chapter, unless the con-stitutions expressly provide otherwise. NOTE: Because of its discretion and authority the Rule of St. Benedict in a relatively short time became known throughout Europe and became almost the exclusive rule for monks. Because of this authority and the experience of centuries, it seems good to introduce into the common law, even though it may be something proper to the mind of St. Benedict, that the abbot consult the seniors in lesser matters and the whole community or chapter in more weighty ones. Concerning the equality of voice, cf. the notes under canons 11 and 14. "However, monasteries of men., ac-cording to their nature and constitutions, may admit clerics and laymen. . on an equal footing and with. equal rights and obhgatlons, apart from those flowing from sacred orders."--Second Vatican Council, Decree on the Renewal of Religious Life, no. 15. SOURCES: Rule of St. Benedict, chap. 3; Code of Canon Law, canons 516; 578, no. 3; Second Vatican Council, Decree on the Renewal of Religious Life, no. 15; Pius XII, Encyclical Letter, Fulgens radiatur, Mar. 21, 1947; Sacred Congregation for Religious, Decree for ihe French (Solesmes) Congregation O.S.B., Apr. 8, 1965; Decree for the Order of Reformed Cistercians, Dec. 27, 1965, no. 1. Article 2.--Apostolate Canon 29 The cenobitic vocation can express itself in some apos-tolate or work of Christian charity legitimately under-taken in harmony with the spirit and authentic nature of the institute. NOTE: This historical fact, which has merited the praise of the Church and society through the centuries, responds to the needs of souls today, making monasteries sources o[ life for the Christian people. SOURCES: Second Vatican Council, Decree on the Re-newal of Religious Life, nos. 9, 20; Pius XI, Apostolic Const., Umbratilem remotamque vitam, July 8, 1924; En-cyclical Letter, Quinquagesimo ante anno, Dec. 23, 1929; Allocution, Tous les Ordres, Mar. 12, 1931; Plus XII, Encyclical Letter, Fulgens radiatur, Mar. 21, 1947; Apos-tolic Const., Sponsa Christi, Nov. 21, 1950; Apostolic Letter, Postquam apOstolicis, Feb. 9, 1952, canon 154; Allocution, Omnibus probe, Sept' 24, 1953; Encyclical Letter, Ecclesiae fastos, June 5, 1954; Apostolic Const., Series Sapientiae, May 31, 1956; Epistle, Sexto decirao revoluto, May 31, 1956; Epistle, Iam quintum expletur saeculum, Aug. 4, 1956; Radio Message, Lorsque Nous, Aug. 2, 1958; John XXIII, Allocution, Vos paterno animo, Sept. 25, 1959; Paul VI, Allocution, Quale salute, Oct. 24, 1964; Sacred Congregation for Religious, Ratio institu. tionis praesertim studiorum O.C.S.O., Nov. 27, 1959, Introd., par. 15-17: nos. 24, 76. Canon 30 Monks engaged in extending Christ's dominion through the apostolate must endeavor to maintain a solitude and silence in harmony with their vocation. NOTE: Here it is not a question of maintaining papal enclosure for monks who by their institute are dedicated to the external apostolate, but of keeping their monas-teries, according to the mind of Pope Paul VI (cf. Sources), as sanctuaries of prayer. SOURCES: Rule of St. Benedict, chs. 4, 43, 66-67; Code of Canon Law, canons 597, 599, 605-606; Second Vatican Council, Dogmatic Const., on the Church, no. 44; Decree on the Renewal of Religious Life, nos. 16, 20; Pius XI, Epistle, Equidem verba, Mar. 21, 1924; Pius XII, Apostolic Const., Sponsa Christi, Nov. 21, 1950; Apostolic .Letter, Postquam apostolicis, Feb. 9, 1952, canons .140-142; En-cyclical Letter, Ecclesiae fastos, June 5, 1954; John XXIII, Allocution, Vos paterno animo, Sept. 25, 1959; Paul VI, Quale salute, Oct. 24, 1964. CHAPTER 2 EREMITI~AL LIFE Canon 31 Canonically a hermit is a monk withdrawn from the world, pursuing the anchoritic life, to attain complete openness to God in solitude, repose, and silence. Seeking the perfection of love through joyful, ready penance, and assiduous reading and prayer, he must not fail to have solicitude for the whole Church. NOTE: It is evident from tradition and clearly recognized in the Rule of St. Benedict that there are two kinds of monks: cenobites and anchorites or hermits. As there is a renaissance of eremitical life in the Western Church today, the revised Code must provide for it. SOURCES: Rule of St. Benedict, chap. I; Second Vatican Council, Dogmatic Const. on the Church, no. 43; Decree on the Renewal of Religious Life, nos. 1, 5-7, 9; Pius XI, Apostolic Const., Umbratilem remotamque vitam, July 8, 1924; Encyclical Letter, Rerum Ecclesiae, Feb. 28, 1926; Epistle, Compertum est, June 5, 1927; Apostolic Const., Inter religiosos coetus, July 2, 1935; Pius xII, Apostolic Letter, Postquam apostolicis, Feb. 9, 1952, canon 313, par. 4; Allocutlon, Nous sommes heureux, Apr. 11, 1958. Canon 32 Four kinds of hermits are to be distinguished: 1. Monks who belong to an eremitical order. 2. Monks or religious who live in solitude while actu-ally remaining under their own superiors. 3. Those who are united in a certain manner in a ÷ + + Mona,tie Proposal VOLUMI: 23, 1967 39 ondlium Mona~ti~um REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS fraternity or laura, without forming a community or federation properly so called. 4. Finally,° those who,live a completely solitary life. NOTE: Because of their differing relationships with ec.~ clesiastical superiors, these four expressions of eremitical life ought to be distinguished. They each require a differ-ent canonical provision. An eremitical order would be almost totally ruled by its own proper constitutions ap-proved by the Apostolic See. SOURCES: Pius XI, Apostolic Const., Umbratilem re-motamque vitam, July 8, 1924; Epistle, Compertum est, June 5, 1927; Apostolic Const., Inter religiosos coetus, July 2, 1935. Canon 33 A monk or religious must obtain the permission of his immediate major superior to enter upon the eremitical life as it is defined in number 2 of the preceding canon. This superior may establish certain,no~rms to be observed by the hermit. After he has been duly tried, the superior may not recall him to community life without a serious cause. In the event of such a summons, the monk or re-ligious may appeal to the Apostolic See, his eremitical status remaining intact while the appeal is pending. NOTE: In conformity with the "principle of subsidiarity" the immediate :superior should and can better judge the suitability of his subject's withdrawing into solitude. After an adequate probation, the hermit should justly have some assurance that he may remain in his chbsen state. SOURCES: Rule of St. Benedict, chap. 1; Pius XI, Apos-tolic Const., Inter religiosos coetus, July 2, 1935. Canon 34 I. The canonical establishment of a fraternity or an association of hermits is reserved to the Apostolic See or the local ordinary. 2. Each member in such an association retains his own proper canonical status. Nevertheless all are subject to the local ordina~ry, ev~en by their vow of obedience if they have one, but the ordinary will habitually delegate his jurisdiction over them to a moderator" or spiritual father elected from the association. NOTE: It is highly recommended that hermits be united in a fraternity that they may give each other spiritual and material assistance. Such an association would require that someone function as moderator or father, and it is he who would be responsible before the Church for the good order of the fraternity . Canon 35 One who wishes ,to live a completely solitary life will not be considered canonically a hermit unless he receives the permission of the local ordinary. In this case the bishop, either personally or through another, must watch that the hermit faithfully lives the life he professes. NOTE: In order that a person be established in a canoni-cal state it is necessary that ecclesiastical authority act. This would ordinarily be the bishop, to whom the hermit, by reason of his status, would subject himself in a special manner. In this way false hermits can be distinguished from true ones. Canon 36 1. A professed monk or religious must have the per-mission of his immediate major superior to transfer to an eremitical association or undertake the solitary life. 2. Having obtained such permission, the monk or re-ligious remains bound by his vows and other obligations of his profession which are compatible with his new state, and though deprived of active and passive voice, he en-joys the spiritual privileges of his institute and may wear the habit. After a reasonable period of probation he can-not be recalled to the cloister against his will, nor may he return there without the superior's permission. 3. The preceding, with appropriate changes, is ap-plicable to members of societies without vows and secular institutes. NOTE: 1. Cf. note under canon 33. 2. This norm is almost identical with canon 639 of the present Code with the significant exception of re-taining the habit, because a life publicly consecrated to God is still being pursued. However, he can assume the habit of the eremitical association if it has one. 3. This is an application of canon 681 to a re-stored eremitic state. SOURCES: 1. Rule of St, Benedict, chap. 1; Pius XI, Apostolic Const., Inter religiosos coetus, July 2, 1935. 2. Code of Canon Law, canon 639; Sacred Congregation for Religious, Indults: Protocol Number 15112/65, Mar. 18, 1965; Protocol Number 1755/64, Afig. 8, 1966. 3. Code of Canon Law, canon 681; Second Vatican Council, Decree on the Renewal of Religious Life, no. 1. Canon 37 The ordinary may not require a hermit, priest or dea-con, to exercise the sacred ministry except in a particular case because of a serious, urgent need. NOTE: When the Church canonically approves the eremitic life, it should also secure its integrity. SOURCES: Second Vatican Council, Decree on the Re-newal o[ Religious Life, nos. 7, 9, 20; Decree on the Pas-toral Office oI Bishops in the Chu.rch, no. 35. Monast~ Proposal VOLUME 26, 1967 41 + ÷ Consilium M onasticum REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS Canon 58 1. For serious, external reasons, the ordinary can send a hermit who is a monk or religious to some religious house, or even, if the situation calls for it, reduce him to secular status. In this latter case the hermit must im-mediately put off the religious habit. The ordinary, how-ever, must immediately submit the matter to the judg-ment of the Holy See. 2. For the same reasons, a hermit who is neither a monk or religious can be evicted from his hermitage by the ordinary. He must then lay aside any distinctive garb. For serious offenses proportionate penalties can be imposed according tO t'he norms of law. NOTE: This provision applies the norms of canons 653 and 668 of the present Code to the eremitical state. SOURCES: Code of Canon Law, canons 653, 668. CHAPTER INTEGRAL CONTEMPLATIVE LIFE Canon 39 However pressing the needs of the active apostolate may be, institutes of men and women which are wholly ordered to contemplation always retain their role in the Mystical Body of Christ. Their members should occnpy themselves with God alone, in solitude and silence, in constant, devoted prayer and joyful, ready penitence. NOTE: All monks live a contemplative life, but according to particular traditions, in varying degrees many also en-gage in an active apostolate. The approved constitutions of individual monastic institutes determine the external apostolate or specify the institute as wholly ordered to the integral contemplative life. SOURCES: Second Vatican Council, Dogmatic Const. on the Church, nos. 44, 46; Decree on the Renewal of Re-ligious Life, nos. 7, 9; Decree on the Mission Activity of the Church, nos. 18, 40; Plus XI, Epistle, Non sine animi, May 28, 1923; Apostolic Const., Umbratilem remotamque vitam, July 8, 1924; Apostolic Letter, Monachorum vita, Jan. 26, 1925; Encyclical Letter, Rerum Ecc.lesiae, Feb. 28, 1926; Epistle, Compertum est, June 5, 1927; Pius XII, Epistle, Quemadmodum Decessor Noster, Nov. 4, 1941; Encyclical Letter, Mystici Corporis, June 29, 1943; Apos-tolic Const., Sponsa Christi, Nov. 21, 1950: General Stat-utes, art. II, par. 2; Allocution, Annus sacer, Dec. 8, 1950; Encyclical Letter, Sacra virginitas, Mar. 25, 1954; Epistle, Iam quintum' expletur saeculum, Aug. 4, 1956; Allocution, Nous sommes heureux, Apr. 11, 1958; Radio Message, Cddant volontiers, July 19, 1958; Radio Message, Si Nous avons, July 26, 1958; Radio Message, Lorsque Nous, Aug. 2, 1958; John XXIII, Allocution, Notre joie, Oct. 20, 1960; Epistle, Recens ate, Oct. 20, 1960; Allocution, Gli innumerevoli ceri, Feb. 2, 1961; Epistle, Il tempio massimo, July 2, 1962; nos. I, III; Epistle, Causa praeclara, July 16, 1962; Allocution, C'est ti Rome, Sept. 1, 1962; Paul VI, Allocution, Quale salute, Oct. 24, 1964; Sacred Congrega-tion for Religious, Ratio institutionis praesertim studi-orum O.C.S.O., Nov. 27, 1959, no. 74; Secred Congrega-tion of Rites, Decree of Feb. 18, 1934; Decree of Apr. 20, 1943; Secretary of State, Epistle of June 5, 1952. Canon 40 1. The contemplative life excludes participation in the external apostolate outside the strict limits of the monas-tery, except in cases where it is truly necessary, and then for a limited time only, concerning which things the abbot is to be the prudent judge. 2. Nevertheless, priests of the order can fittingly fulfill the office of confessor or chaplain among their own nuns. 3. Outside these cases the ordinary of the place may not call upon them to exercise external ministry, so that they might easily be able to effectively fulfill their proper mission toward the whole Church. NOTE: 1. Some ministry is necessary within the monas-tery, some monks being appointed to serve their brethren, others to satisfy the need~ of ~uests and visitors. But it must always and everywhere be evident that the contem-plative life is the first and principal end of the monastery. Therefore the ~ninistry of contemplatives must be of such a nature and so tempered as to place, time, mode, and manner, that a truly and solidly contemplative life, both for the community as a whole and for the individual monks, is preserved and.constant!y nourished and strength-ened. 2. This is necessary so that the nuns can receive a formation truly in harmony with the spirit of the institute. This duty of engendering and nourishing the spirit of the order should not impede but rather enkindle the contemplative life of the chaplain and confessor. 3. Because members of exclusively contemplative institutes are to participate in the pastoral office of the bishops in the Church by their witness of an evangelical life of prayer and penance, they need to be exempted from the active works of the diocese. SOURCES: Second Vatican Council, Decree on the Re-newal of Religious Life, nos. 7, 9, 20; Decree on the Pas-toral Office of Bishops in the Church, nos. 35; Plus XI, Apostolic Const., Umbratilem remotamque vitam, July 8, 1924; Pius XII, Apostolic Const., Sponsa Christi, Nov. 21, 1950: General Statutes, art. IX, par. 2, no. 2; Apostolic Letter, Postquam apostolicis, Feb. 9, 1952, canon 154, par. 1; Radio Message, Lorsque Nous, Aug. 2, 1958; Sacred Congregation for Religious, Epistle to the Apostolic Nuncios, Mar. 7, 1951; Decree for the Order of Reformed Cistercians, June 27, 1956; Ratio institutionis praesertim studiorum O.S.C.O., Nov. 27, 1959, Introd., pa~. 17; no. 76, par. 2. 2. Pius XII, Radio Message, Cddant volon-tiers, July 19, 1958; Sacred Congregation for Religious, Epistle to the Apostolic Nuncios, Mar. 7, 1951; Ratio ÷ ÷ ÷ Monasti~ Prtr'posal VOLUME 26, 1967 4. 4. 4. Consilium Monasticum REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS institutionis praesertim studiorum O.C.S.O., Nov. 27, 1959, Introd., par. 24; no. 76, par. 2. 3. Second Vatican Council, Dogmatic Const. on the Church, no. 46; Decree on the Renewal o[ Religious Li[e, nos. 7, 9; Decree on the Pastoral Office o[ Bishops in the Church, no. 35; Decree on the Mission Activity o] the Church, nos. 18, 40; Pius XI, Apostolic Const., Umbratilem remotamque vitam, July 8, 1924; Apostolic Letter, Monachorum vita, Jan. 26, 1925; Encyclical Letter, Rerum Ecclesiae, Feb. 28, 1926; Pius XII, Apostolic Const., Sponsa Christi, Nov. 21, 1950: General Statutes, art. IX, par. 2, no, 2; Radio Message, Lorsque Nous, Aug. 2, 1958; Sacred Congregation for Religious, Decree [or the Order o[ Re[ormed Cistercians, June 27, 1956. Canon 41 1. To preserve recollection and monastic peace, a stricter enclosure should be carefully maintained in all monasteries which profess the integral contemplative life. 2. Abbots must see to the faithful observance of the constitutions in regard to travel and visits. NOTE: 1. In exclusively contemplative monasteries of monks and nuns, papal enclosure should be maintained but, with the consultation of the monasteries, it should be adapted to time and place, abrogating the obsolete and the automatic censures ~[or a breach of enclosure. 2. This is the present law; but fittingly broadened so that an abbot, and by equal right an abbess, for serious reasons may admit visitors of both sexes into the enclosure. SOURCES: 1. Code of Canon Law, canon 1291; Second Vatican Council; Decree on the Renewal o[ Religious Life, nos. 7, 16; Plus XI, Apostolic Const., Umbratilem remotamque vitam, July 8, 1924; Apostolic Letter, Mona-chorum vita, Jan. 26, 1925; Plus xII, Apostolic Const., Sponsa Christi, Nov. 21, 1950: General Statutes~ art. IV, par. 2; Sacred Congregation for Religious, Instruction, nter praeclara, Nov. 23, 1950; Decree [or the Order of Re[ormed Cistercians, June 27, 1956; Ratio institutionis praesertim stt~diorum O.C.S.O., Nov. 27, 1959, no. 73. 2. Code of Canon Law, canon 606, par. 1; Plus XII, Apostolic Letter, Postquam apostolicis, Feb. 9, 1952, canons 141, 144. Canon 42 l. In institutes of the integral contemplative life, priestly training ought to conform to the norms of com-mon law as adapted to the contemplative life by their own approved programs of study. 2. If a monk-priest transfers from the contemplative life to the active ministry he should.undergo a period of practical pastoral training. NOTE: Pastoral formation should prepare priests to worthily fulfill their various apostolic duties as the Church desires and their institute requires by its nature and end. For this reason students in exclusively contemplative monasteries ordinarily are not trained in parochial prac-tices but in those duties to which the abbot might assign them. Hence it is good to require additional practical pastoral formation for one transferring. SOURCES: 1. Pius XlI, Apostolic Const., Sedes Sapien-tiae, May 31, 1956; Sacred Congregation for Religious, General Statutes, July 7, 1956, art. 19; Ratio institutioni~ praesertim studiorum O.C.S.O., Nov. 27, 1959, Introd., par. 14-17; no. 76. 2. Second Vatican Council, Decree on Priestly Formation, no. 19; Plus X!I, Apostolic Const., Sedes Sapientiae, May 31, 1956; Paul VI, Allocution, Magno gaudio, May 23, 1964. + + + Monastic Proposal VOLUME 26, 1967 45 PATRICK GRANFIELD An Interview with Abbot Butler Patrick Granfield is professor of the-ology at Catholic University and a monk of St. An-selm's Abbey; 19th and South Dakota Ave. N.E.; Wash-ington, D.C. 20017. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 46 Interviewer:* In Rome, at the end of the Council, you said in a public address that the Decree on the Adaptation and Renewal of the Religious Life was a summons to revolution. What did you mean by that? Abbot Butler: The Decree, of course, considers the religious life in the light of the aggiornamento in gen-eral. It spells out the meaning of the word aggiorna-. mento by talking about adapted renovation of religious life. It takes the criteria for adaptation, I think, from the notion of renovation. When it gets back to what it means by renovation, it appears that this means re-covering the spirit in which the founder of your re-ligious institute created the body to which you belong. There is stated, or could very easily be evoked from the document, the distinction between the spirit and pur-poses of the founder's creation and the actual contingent form into which he put it. As I see the meaning of the document, religious are entitled to regard as contingent and expendable not only all the accretions which have been added to the founder's original institution, but even the contingent forms in which he expressed his spirit. Religious are to try to reexpress that spirit in forms which 'are relevant and contemporary. Interviewer: Is that revolution? /lbbot Butler: Technically, it's not revolution, be-cause it's a question of going back to primal sources. But the practical consequences will look very much like revolution, if we. take this seriously, and accept with both hands the invitation that has been offered us by the Church. Interviewer: Perhaps a more fundamental question deals with the desirability of religious life. Do you ¯ This interview will form one chapter in a book of interviews called Theologians at Wor~ to be published by Macmillan during 1967. think that there is any place for religious life in the changing Church? Abbot Butler: It is a little difficult for me to give a revolutionary answer to that question since I was one, in a general way at least as a Council father, who passed the constitution, De Ecclesia. As you know De Ecclesia has consecrated a chapter to the religious life and seemed to give a kind of rationale of it. I feel that that limits one a little here. However, I can say that since religious life has been such a featnre of the life of the Church virtually speaking throughout the ages~ certainly you get that idea from St. Cyprian in the third century writing his treatise on virgins and the virgins of that time were the forerunners of religious life as we know it--that I think it would be very difficult to say that the religious life has no more than a merely transi-tory and passing value in the Church for a particular age. What I think is much more difficult, even after having decided that one has to find room for the re-ligious life in the Church, even in the aggiornamento Church, is to find a rationale for it. In recent discus-sions these difficulties have been accentuated. I had always thought that I knew more or less what the re-ligious life was, although I was rather doubtful how I would give a definition of monasticism as a species of religious life. However, after these discussions I came away feeling completely agnostic about the definition of religious life altogether. Interviewer: What of the suggestion placing religious life between the lay state and the clerical state? Abbot Butler: You cannot locate it in this way. You are applying the wrong criteria if you try to find a place for it between sacred orders and the lay state. Obviously, the vocation to religious life appears to come to men whether they are lay or sacerdotal. Or supposing that they are laymen at the time, it may come along with a vocation to the sacerdotal state. It seems to me that it has to be seen more in the charismatic order than in the sacramental order. There is a sacramental distinction between the clergy and the laity. But the religious life, although it sounds rather paradoxical to put it like this, is a kind of institutionalized charism. Interviewer: Who, then, is a religious? Abbot Butler: A religious is a person who has become aware of and has responded to a more special invitation from God to take Christianity at its maximal signifi-cance, instead of trying to get past with the minimal interpretation. Then, having seen and responding to it, he has wished to safeguard himself against future temp-tations to relapse on the minimizing basis of things by + + Abbot Butler VOLU~E 26, ].967 ÷ ÷ ÷ Patrick Granfield REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 48 committing himself for the future, as well as for the moment, by vows. Interviewer: It seems that you are implying that the lay person is not committed to the maximal exercise of Christianity. Abbot Butler: I think all Christians are called to it, but what makes a bit of difference with religious is that he has become in some special way conscious of that vocation. He has apprehended it as something that appertains to him personally. He has wished to make a response to it and he has desired to commit himself to it by an engagement, which helps keep him from any failure. Interviewer: How is the religious any different from the dedicated Christian who, conscious of his baptismal character, makes every effort to grow in the love of God? Abbot Butler: Leaving aside the question of the pub-lic nature of the religious vocations in the Church, I agree that both have become conscious.of the call to holiness and both of them have willed to make apposite responses. But the religious has added the feature of dedication, 'by which he commits himself for the future. Now~ if anybody does that, whether or not he plays a role in the public life of the Church as a religious, he is dedicated basically in. the same way as a religious pro-vided he has committed himself to the future. ,Interviewer: What do you think about the traditional way of speaking of the religious life as a state of per-fection? Abbot B~ttler: The term comes out of a world of discourse that is so 'alien to us these days that it is more misleading than helpful. Interviewer: Do you think it is theologically inac-curate? Abbot Butler: I suspect that if you take it in its full theological depth, it meant for the medieval people who invented this way of talking much the same sort of thing that I mean by the engagement of oneself for the future in a maximal practice of Christianity. This is what the status pkrfectionis means. Interviewer: How do you relate this to the monastic state? Abbot Btttler: It is difficult enough to settle on what one means by a religious, but it's more difficult to decide what one means by a monk. If you look the world over yo.u.find an extraordinary variety of interpretations of Wtiat monasticism means. This is not merely a modern phenomenon; other ages had a similar problem. This is partly due to the fact that monasticism grew up almost spontaneously in an age which had not developed a con-ceptualized theology. If is rhther like--if I may use an analogy---comparing the British Constitution with the American Constitution. The British Constitution is, practically speaking, undefinable because it is the result of gradual growth. It goes back to periods long before men reflected scientifically on their experiences and their intentions. Whereas the American Constitution came from a highly sophisticated age and was a written con-stitution from the first. Therefore you might compare the Society of Jesus with the American Constitution, since both came from a sophisticated, time and were able to define themselves at the moment they came into origin. But monasticism just grew in the Church. It is extremely difficult to look back and to decide what was the basic and not merely the accidental structure. I was talking about this p,roblem very recently with Canon Charles Moeller. He said that one of his theology professors, who had spent a lifetime studying the fathers of the desert and early monasticism, told him that noth-ing is more difficult than to elucidate the historical origins and theological basis of monasticism. Interviewer: What are your own observations on the nature of monasticism? Abbot Butler: Yes, to return to your question. In Rome, I think it was at the end of the second session, a group of us got together to discuss this question. Some were already a bit frightened about certain proposed changes in canon law that applied to monks. Someone suggested that the formal object of the monastic voca-tion was simple vacate Deo--to have time for God, to be open to God. Other orders and congregations in the Church have specific work, particular ways in which they serve God. But the whole point about monasticism is that there is no special way. It is just vacate Deo-- dedication to God in and for Himself. Interviewer: Do you agree with that explanation? Abbot Butler: Well, I thought it was rather good until the abbot president of a missionary monastic group said: "Well, if that is monasticism, then we are not monks." Another view was given by the Abbot of Montserrat who said that the thing that really makes a monk is the special place he gives to lectio divina--prayer in the wide sense. He explained that while the monk does work like anybody else, what makes him a monk is the "Work of God," the Opus Dei, the official public recitation of the Divine Office. The Rule of St. Benedict supports this and gives great emphasis to lectio divina. It is this dedication to a kind of meditative absorption of the whole Christian spiritual tradition in lectio divina which constitutes the specificity of the monk. Whether that's the case or not, I don't know, but it's the latest suggestions that I've heard of a positive kind. 4- 4- 4- Abbot Butler VOLUME 26, 1967 ,t9 ÷ ÷ ÷ Patrick Granfield REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 50 Interviewer: One frequently hears the criticism that the monastic state is a great waste of talent, time, and effort, a kind of religious escapism from the needs and responsibilities of the world. Abbot Bulter: Yes, this is often heard. One answer can be found in the Constitution of the Church which says that the religious life is a witness to the transcen-dental claims of Christianity, It says that the religious life "not only witnesses to the fact of a new and eternal life acquired by the redemption of Christ," but it "foretells the resurrected state and the glory of the heavenly kingdom." The same document insists that the religious life can be of great advantage to the salvific mission of the Church. Interviewer: Hasn't the time come for immediate re-newal of the religious life? Abbot Butler: I think it is a time for drastic measures. I think that most certainly. One of the things that really rather upset me at the Council was that when-ever the question of religious came up, there was an extreme supersensitiveness on the part of some religious superiors of whom of course I am one. They seemed to have an esprit de corps that was almost neurotic. I felt that they were consistently refusing even to make the effort to get down to the theological depths of the problem. They were continually taking refuge behind canon law. One of the first things we have to do is to delegalize the whole thing. We have to get down to the theological view and leave aside the legalistic view. Interviewer: How do you explain this sheltering be-hind canon law? Abbot Butler: I am not sure how to explain it. I suspect that it indicates a fear of the action of the local hierarchy or the local bishop. For the older orders, of course, the obvious defense against the bishop is ex-emption. But exemption is a pure invention of canon law. The bias that some religious show to canon law distorts the true picture of things. We also have to get behind some of the second-rate theologizing of what we used to call the scholastic tradi-tion. I am becoming extremely skeptical about the old divisions that we've been used to, the distinctions be-tween the active and contemplative life and the mixed life. I don't believe that that has any deep roots in tradition. If you study the fathers, you will discover that they meant something different by the active and contemplative life than the scholastic theologians. Interviewer: Do you have any practical suggestions on how monastic life might be renewed? Abbott Butler: There is a tremendous amount of "clearing of the decks" to be done. To get down to particulars, we should begin with the Divine Office which plays such a prominent part in our lives. For nearly all monks today the articulation of the daily Office into eight separate hours is no longer authentic. It no longer corresponds to a vital need. It was done in St. Benedict's time when they followed the seasons of the year and the hours of the sun and lived in a rural community. A much more meaningful way of dividing up the Office for us would be to take a leaf out of the Constitution on the Liturgy and to see Lauds and Vespers as the two hinges on which the whole Office revolves. That way you have a morning and an evening Office and you can add something in the way of a "Little Hour" at mid-day. Besides that I think that we need a solid block of prayer with the Psalms and lectio divina which could be put at any'convenient hour. This type of articulation rings much truer. Interviewer: The younger .generation would agree with that. Abbot Butler: I am very interested in the younger generation, although I don't pretend to understand it. It would be absurd for anybody of my age to pretend to. I do seem to glimpse certain ~ things about, them and I think that they have a horror, which I can respect as I understand it, for anything .that is phony--anything that is hypocritical, unauthentic. They feel that we are preserving the present structure of 'the monastic Office just for the sake of preserving: For them the present articulation of the Office doesn't make sense. They almost shriek with repulsion when~ for instance, we say Sext and None in one full swoop and start off twice in the course of ten minutes with Deus in adiutorium meum intende, which is obviously, the 'beginning of,a new time of prayer. It's like bad music to them. Some-thing should be done about this, Interviewer: Do you think that the. Psalms are still authentic vehicles of prayer? Abbot Butler: The Psalms, I feel (and perhaps I'm a bit old-fashioned about it), are the inspired prayer-book of the Church and they have a permanent value. They are so remote that they are easier to universalize and to apply to new situations than some modern prayers would prove to be. Interviewer: What of the readings from the fathers? Abbot Butler: This is something else. I agree that 'the fathers for the most part are not helpful. Perhaps better selections could be found. Let us take, for example, the Homilies in our Office ~hich are supposed to be the exegesis for the Scripture of the day. Now if there is one thing that is quite clear about the fathers, it is that their exegesis was nearly always wrongly,It's one of the 4. 4. 4. Abbot Butler VOLUME 26, !967 ÷ ÷ Patrick Granfield REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 52 most remarkable things about the fathers, I don't know why the strict conservative who thinks that tradition is an independent channel of preserving revelation hasn't insisted more on this point. The early fathers always get the right results by the wrong exegetical method. Interviewer: The vow of stability, that unique Bene-dictine vow whereby one promises to live in a particular monastery, is being reexamined by the monks them-selves. I recently met a monk who justified his nearly two hundred days of absence from the monastery in one year' by the argument that the essential part of the vow of stability is the stability of the heart or loyalty and not merely the geographic stability of place. What are your thoughts on stability? Abbot Butler: Lord Walsingham, foreign diplomat in the reign of Elizabeth I, used to describe his job as being to lie abroad in the service of her majesty. I think that the formal element in stability is the sta-bilitas cordis stability of the heart. Now we are get-ting down very near the basic roots of the monastic problem. Monasticism had its genesis in an entirely different cultural background from what we are grow-ing into at the present day. Stability meant a great deal more and had a great deal more positive value in those days than it has today. It meant that you grew into a total 'local environment which was only doing rather better and more deliberately what everybody tended to do in those days. There wasn't much instability in the life of the ordinary person. Today we live in a world where the horizons are so widened and the socialization has become such, that the old idea of local stability does not have the same role to play in monasticism as it used to. I say this with great.hesitation, because I am con-vinced that local stability has an obvious value. It makes the stabilitas cordis not merely a kind of pious velleity but a positive incarnational thing. As men, we do form a concrete, human family in our local monas-tery and we interact on one another directly in a very obvious way. It could be that because the world is going so socialized and so universalized that it needs a counter-poise that monasticism offers. Interviewer: You don:t feel that the uniqueness of Benedictine monasticism is in jeopardy if a liberal view of stability is adapted?. Abbot Butler: What is most specific in monasticism, compared with other forms of religious life in the Church, is allegiance to the local abbot. In orders like the Dominicans or Franciscans°your allegiance would be to a superior who rules thousands of people all over the world. He is a remote figure and few of his subjects have any contact with him. Even if a Benedictine spends half a year outside the monastery he does know his abbot personally and has a personal link with the other brethren in the monastery. This does make a great difference. Interviewer: On the other hand, the Dominicans, Franciscans, or Jesuits also have their local superior and they live in a community structure. While it's true that monasticism insists more on the communitarian aspect of life, can it still do so if it accepts a very wide view of stability which does not stress the local aspect--the permanence in a particular place? Abbot Butler: It is very difficult to conceptualize such things. But in my own abbey, for instance, we have a certain number of parishes where the monks are in charge and they spend years outside the monastery. I feel that the relationships between the monks on the distant parishes and his abbot are of a different human quality from the relations .between a friar and his local superior. Apart from the pope there is no higher supe-rior for a monk than his abbot. Interviewer: Declericalization is a primary goal in the present religious renewal. How does this apply practi-cally to monasticism? Abbot Butler: The separation in monastic life be-tween the clerical family and the lay brotherhood is in itself an absolutely outrageous thingl Here we must get back to the spirit of the founder. If there is one thing about which I am absolutely certain it is that St. Benedict conceived of monastic life as a way of being a Christian, not a way of being a priest. You might be a priest as well, but it is accidental to your monastic vocation. The present state of things in monasticism in the West is a bit of a scandal. It almost amounts to a dictation to the Holy Ghost. You tell the Holy Ghost that He may not give a full monastic vocation to any-body unless he couples it with a quite different thing, which is a sacerdotal vocation. Interviewer: Historically the tendency to clericalize goes back to the eighth or ninth century. Abbot Butler: It did begin as early as that, but I think that the monstrosity of the lay brother probably came in about the end of the eleventh century or the beginning of the twelfth. In a legalized form it was a Cistercian invention. It is helpful to remember that we do belong to the Catholic Church and that Eastern monasticism has never fallen into this awful abyss. Interviewer: Let us change the subject to theology. As an Englishman and a theologian, do you think that modern theology has successfully answered the challenge put forth by linguistic analysis? Abbot Butler: No. ÷ + ÷ Abbot Butler VOLUME 26, 1967 53 ÷ ÷ ÷ REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 54 Interviewer: Do you think theology has a duty to answer? 'Abbot Butler: Yes, there is a duty. I would like to preface my remarks by saying that I am not a pro-fessional philosopher. I am inclined to think that lin-guistic analysis is a rather provincial phenomenon and a rather transitory stage in the total history of philosophy. It will probably have done some good in much the same way as the Greek Sophists, in forc.ing men to be careful in their use of language and to reflect upon their use of language. In toto, linguistic analysis is not too impor-tant, but in the actual situation it happens to be im-portant because it controls a great deal of the higher culture of the West in its more sophisticated side. I don't think that we hav

L'empowerment est considéré comme un processus qui favorise le développement de pouvoirs par des personnes qui en sont dépourvues. Il constitue aussi un levier intéressant de réduction des inégalités entre les groupes sociaux. Il passe par une multitude de moyens et stratégies qui dépendent des réalités de vie des personnes concernées. Diverses recherches ont montré que l'économie sociale et solidaire (ÉSS) est un puissant levier par lequel les actions d'empowerment se concrétisent de manière durable puisqu'elle permet aux personnes en situation de vulnérabilité d'unir leurs forces et de faire les changements profonds nécessaires pour une justice sociale. Au Mali, les inégalités entre les hommes et les femmes sont importantes et elles s'amplifient depuis quelques années avec la pauvreté qui sévit dans les milieux de vie des populations. Pour réduire ces inégalités, le gouvernement appuyé par ses partenaires internationaux opte pour un empowerment des femmes, centré sur leur autonomisation économique. Pour ce faire, de nombreuses actions sont développées avec des organisations de femmes. Les centres d'autopromotion des femmes (CAFE) sont les moyens par lesquels l'empowerment des femmes des milieux ruraux maliens est soutenu, et ce, à travers leur autonomisation économique. Les CAFE réunissent les organisations des femmes qui relèvent du domaine de l'ÉSS notamment les associations et les coopératives et leur gestion est assuré par les regroupements que les responsables de ces organisations forment. Une recherche réalisée en 2017 a montré que les CAFE favorisent bien cette autonomisation économique et permettent aux femmes qui en sont membres de construire une certaine force collective. En revanche, les CAFE ne permettent pas aux femmes de développer des capacités de transformation des normes sociales qui donnent le pouvoir aux hommes et fait d'eux les dominants dans les sphères sociale, économique et politique. Notre thèse s'intéresse à cet apparent paradoxe en cherchant à répondre à la question suivante : empowerment des femmes rurales et économie sociale et solidaire : quels enjeux pour le développement de la capacité de transformation sociale au travers de centres d'autopromotion des femmes au Mali ? Pour aborder cette question, nous nous intéressons plus particulièrement à l'une des dimensions de l'empowerment : le « pouvoir intérieur ». Notre recherche s'est déroulée auprès des femmes de trois CAFE situés en milieu rural malien : Kita, Toubacoro et Dioïla. Elle prend appui sur une posture féministe postcoloniale qui met les femmes concernées et leurs points de vue au cœur de la recherche. Elle reconnait que les femmes ne sont pas une population homogène et que divers rapports de pouvoir existent entre elles. Par conséquent, elle utilise une approche intersectionnelle non seulement pour tenir compte de cette diversité de pouvoirs mais aussi pour rendre compte de l'interconnexion du sexisme et de l'âgisme dans les sphères sociale, économique et politique. En plus de la forte internalisation de la domination masculine par les femmes des CAFE, les résultats montrent qu'elles sont des actrices importantes de la perpétuation de la domination masculine. Les résultats montrent aussi que si le développement du « pouvoir intérieur » est indispensable pour l'empowerment des femmes, il ne demeure pas une priorité pour les CAFE et leurs organisations. ; Empowerment is seen as a process that promotes the development of power by people who lack it. It is also an interesting lever for reducing inequalities between social strata. It goes through a multitude of means and strategies which depend on the realities of life of the people concerned. Various research has shown that the social and solidarity economy (SSE) is a powerful lever through which empowerment actions take shape in a sustainable manner since it allows people in vulnerable situations to join forces and make changes. profoundly necessary for social justice. In Mali, the inequalities between men and women are significant and they have been amplified in recent years with the poverty that has raged in the living environments of the populations. To reduce these inequalities, the government, supported by its international partners, opts for the empowerment of women, centered on their economic empowerment. To do this, many actions have been developed with women's organizations. Women's Self-Promotion Centers (CAFE) are the means by which the empowerment of rural Malian women is supported, through their economic empowerment. CAFE bring together women's organizations in the field of SSE, particularly associations and cooperatives, and their management is carried out by the groups formed by the heads of these organizations. Research carried out in 2017 showed that CAFE do well to promote this economic empowerment and allow women who are members to build a certain collective strength. In contrast, CAFE do not allow women to develop the capacity to transform social norms that empower men and make them dominant in the social, economic and political spheres. Our thesis focuses on this apparent paradox by seeking to answer the following question: empowerment of rural women and the social and solidarity economy: what are the challenges for the development of the capacity for social transformation through women's self-promotion centers in Mali? ? To address this question, we are particularly interested in one of the dimensions of empowerment: "power within". Our research was carried out with the women of three CAFE located in rural Mali: Kita, Toubacoro and Dioïla. It is based on a postcolonial feminist posture which places the women concerned and their points of view at the heart of research. She recognizes that women are not a homogeneous population and that various power relationships exist between them. Therefore, she uses an intersectional approach not only to account for this diversity of powers but also to account for the interconnectedness of sexism and ageism in the social, economic and political spheres. In addition to the strong internalization of male domination by CAFE women, the results show that they are important actors in the perpetuation of male domination. The results also show that while the development of "power within" is essential for the empowerment of women, it does not remain a priority for CAFE and their organizations.

Problem setting. The pace of reforms in Ukraine affects all state institutions through systemic changes in state regulation mechanisms. In terms of scope and content, the mechanisms of state regulation lead to profound social transformations, which allow us to assert that Ukraine is undergoing a new stage of qualitative changes that can produce other social practices, including in the field of nuclear energy. The responsibility for the successful implementation of these reforms is exacerbated by the fact that they occur against the background of the obvious crisis of the world order, systemic internal and external challenges - the need to counter hybrid terrorist threats to territorial integrity and sovereignty, economic and man-made society. which leads to a focus on profitable economic activity and disrupts the natural course of social development. Under the outlined conditions, the development of the nuclear industry is impossible without the effective application of methods of state regulation that fully take into account its features and specifics, which will comprehensively and timely ensure nuclear and radiation safety. In this regard, the existing regulatory framework, which is a hierarchical system of legal norms, becomes a priority for Ukraine in the development of the legal mechanism of state regulation of the safe use of nuclear energy. Therefore, the scientific search for existing ways to improve, as well as conceptualize and implement new for Ukraine mechanisms of state regulation in the field of nuclear energy, consistent with the approaches of the European Union (EU) and the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), become especially relevant and important. A special place in this process is occupied by the legal mechanism of state regulation in the field of nuclear energy use in Ukraine. Recent research and publications analysis. It should be noted that issues related to the study of management mechanisms in recent decades are in the field of scientific interests of many scientists, such as V. Averyanov, G. Atamanchuk, V. Afanasyev, V. Bakumenko, E. Grigonis, L. Grigoryan. , N. Yesypchuk, V. Knyazev, M. Koretsky, O. Korotych, M. Kruglov, P. Nadolishny, N. Nyzhnyk, O. Obolensky, G. Odintsova, Y. Tikhomirov, L. Yuzkov and a number of other scientists. However, despite the applicability of this definition, approaches, content and structure are interpreted differently: there is both identification with the mechanism of the state, economic or economic mechanism, and the opposition of the essence of the concept. A significant contribution to the development of certain legal aspects of the problem under study was made by legal scholars, in particular: H. Balyuk researched the formation and formation of nuclear law in Ukraine and conceptual and legal "reforms" in the field of ecology in Ukraine and modern challenges; S. Yershova researched legal regulation of economic relations (relations) of nuclear power plants of Ukraine; S. Plachkova studied the state regulation of nuclear and radiation safety in Ukraine. Analysis of recent research and publications shows that government regulation in the field of nuclear energy has been studied in part, from different scientific points of view. The paper objective – to carry out analysis of the theoretical and methodological foundations of the legal mechanism of state regulation of safe use of nuclear energy and identify factors that contribute to improving the efficiency of the process of targeted state influence in this area. Main material. State regulation in the field of nuclear energy can be defined as supporting and regulatory activities of the state, implemented on the basis of theoretical and methodological principles (doctrines, concepts, values, principles, guidelines, goals, objectives) through a system of organized, targeted, comprehensive actions (measures) and mechanisms for achieving them (means, methods, levers and tools of influence) and aimed at creating favorable conditions and environment for nuclear and radiation safety, human protection from radiation, through the priority of banning certain activities and state supervision in the field of use nuclear energy. Development and legal consolidation of norms and rules of relations of subjects of state regulation in the field of nuclear energy use, establishment of requirements to forms of legal regulation, gives to state regulation internal coherence which is provided by timeliness of their acceptance and application, completeness and stability. Direct influence is exercised through instruments of administrative and legal nature, which regulate the activities of the executive body. the functional sphere of state regulation in the field of nuclear energy use is manifested through the process of purposeful influence on facilities that are not necessarily subordinated to the relevant executive body. Accordingly, state regulation in the field of nuclear energy use is a dynamic process of state influence on facilities operating in the field of nuclear energy use and providing technical support to the executive branch. Conclusions of the research. The study found that government regulation in the field of nuclear energy is aimed at protecting life, health, property, length protection, as well as establishing ways to organize the organization of activities, licensing rules, location of activities and provision of services. In other words, state regulation in the use of nuclear energy involves organized systemic actions to ensure sustainable and balanced functioning of the economic, environmental, social subsystem, aimed at ensuring nuclear and radiation safety of the population and the environment. Approaches to understanding the essence of state regulation determine the ways of organizing relations between the state and the subjects of activity, the choice of which is based on the specifics of the sphere and the goals of the state that are implemented. ; У статті представлено теоретико-методологічний аналіз правового механізму державного регулювання у сфері використання ядерної енергії. Обґрунтовано, що в основі державного регулювання у сфері використання ядерної енергії є процес цілеспрямованого державного впливу, а саме: організуючі, регулюючі та контролюючі дії органу, що забезпечує ядерну та радіаційну безпеку. Пропонується вдосконалення й імплементація правового механізму державного регулювання у сфері використання ядерної енергії в Україні співвідносно до підходів Європейського Союзу (ЄС) та Міжнародного агентства з ядерної енергії (МАГАТЕ). Окреслено проблеми та питання подальших наукових розвідок.Ключові слова: державне регулювання; правовий механізм; ядерна енергія.

Problem setting. The pace of reforms in Ukraine affects all state institutions through systemic changes in state regulation mechanisms. In terms of scope and content, the mechanisms of state regulation lead to profound social transformations, which allow us to assert that Ukraine is undergoing a new stage of qualitative changes that can produce other social practices, including in the field of nuclear energy. The responsibility for the successful implementation of these reforms is exacerbated by the fact that they occur against the background of the obvious crisis of the world order, systemic internal and external challenges - the need to counter hybrid terrorist threats to territorial integrity and sovereignty, economic and man-made society. which leads to a focus on profitable economic activity and disrupts the natural course of social development. Under the outlined conditions, the development of the nuclear industry is impossible without the effective application of methods of state regulation that fully take into account its features and specifics, which will comprehensively and timely ensure nuclear and radiation safety. In this regard, the existing regulatory framework, which is a hierarchical system of legal norms, becomes a priority for Ukraine in the development of the legal mechanism of state regulation of the safe use of nuclear energy. Therefore, the scientific search for existing ways to improve, as well as conceptualize and implement new for Ukraine mechanisms of state regulation in the field of nuclear energy, consistent with the approaches of the European Union (EU) and the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), become especially relevant and important. A special place in this process is occupied by the legal mechanism of state regulation in the field of nuclear energy use in Ukraine. Recent research and publications analysis. It should be noted that issues related to the study of management mechanisms in recent decades are in the field of scientific interests of many scientists, such as V. Averyanov, G. Atamanchuk, V. Afanasyev, V. Bakumenko, E. Grigonis, L. Grigoryan. , N. Yesypchuk, V. Knyazev, M. Koretsky, O. Korotych, M. Kruglov, P. Nadolishny, N. Nyzhnyk, O. Obolensky, G. Odintsova, Y. Tikhomirov, L. Yuzkov and a number of other scientists. However, despite the applicability of this definition, approaches, content and structure are interpreted differently: there is both identification with the mechanism of the state, economic or economic mechanism, and the opposition of the essence of the concept. A significant contribution to the development of certain legal aspects of the problem under study was made by legal scholars, in particular: H. Balyuk researched the formation and formation of nuclear law in Ukraine and conceptual and legal "reforms" in the field of ecology in Ukraine and modern challenges; S. Yershova researched legal regulation of economic relations (relations) of nuclear power plants of Ukraine; S. Plachkova studied the state regulation of nuclear and radiation safety in Ukraine. Analysis of recent research and publications shows that government regulation in the field of nuclear energy has been studied in part, from different scientific points of view. The paper objective – to carry out analysis of the theoretical and methodological foundations of the legal mechanism of state regulation of safe use of nuclear energy and identify factors that contribute to improving the efficiency of the process of targeted state influence in this area. Main material. State regulation in the field of nuclear energy can be defined as supporting and regulatory activities of the state, implemented on the basis of theoretical and methodological principles (doctrines, concepts, values, principles, guidelines, goals, objectives) through a system of organized, targeted, comprehensive actions (measures) and mechanisms for achieving them (means, methods, levers and tools of influence) and aimed at creating favorable conditions and environment for nuclear and radiation safety, human protection from radiation, through the priority of banning certain activities and state supervision in the field of use nuclear energy. Development and legal consolidation of norms and rules of relations of subjects of state regulation in the field of nuclear energy use, establishment of requirements to forms of legal regulation, gives to state regulation internal coherence which is provided by timeliness of their acceptance and application, completeness and stability. Direct influence is exercised through instruments of administrative and legal nature, which regulate the activities of the executive body. the functional sphere of state regulation in the field of nuclear energy use is manifested through the process of purposeful influence on facilities that are not necessarily subordinated to the relevant executive body. Accordingly, state regulation in the field of nuclear energy use is a dynamic process of state influence on facilities operating in the field of nuclear energy use and providing technical support to the executive branch. Conclusions of the research. The study found that government regulation in the field of nuclear energy is aimed at protecting life, health, property, length protection, as well as establishing ways to organize the organization of activities, licensing rules, location of activities and provision of services. In other words, state regulation in the use of nuclear energy involves organized systemic actions to ensure sustainable and balanced functioning of the economic, environmental, social subsystem, aimed at ensuring nuclear and radiation safety of the population and the environment. Approaches to understanding the essence of state regulation determine the ways of organizing relations between the state and the subjects of activity, the choice of which is based on the specifics of the sphere and the goals of the state that are implemented. ; У статті представлено теоретико-методологічний аналіз правового механізму державного регулювання у сфері використання ядерної енергії. Обґрунтовано, що в основі державного регулювання у сфері використання ядерної енергії є процес цілеспрямованого державного впливу, а саме: організуючі, регулюючі та контролюючі дії органу, що забезпечує ядерну та радіаційну безпеку. Пропонується вдосконалення й імплементація правового механізму державного регулювання у сфері використання ядерної енергії в Україні співвідносно до підходів Європейського Союзу (ЄС) та Міжнародного агентства з ядерної енергії (МАГАТЕ). Окреслено проблеми та питання подальших наукових розвідок.Ключові слова: державне регулювання; правовий механізм; ядерна енергія.

Der 2017 erschienene Sammelband, herausgegeben von Timo Storck und Svenja Taubner, nähert sich der populären Genre-TV-Serie mit Ansätzen aus unterschiedlichen Disziplinen. Neben den im Titel genannten Serien finden sich Texte über jüngere US-amerikanische Produktionen wie The Americans (Anna Tuschling und Till A. Heilmann), Girls (Rolf und Jan Schröder) und True Detective (Birgit Däwes). Aber auch Beiträge zu älteren Produktionen wie CSI (Lorenz Engell), Sex and the City (Nülüfer Aydin, Katharina Dinhof, Caroline Elz und Sarah Stepanovsky) und Supernatural (Christian Sell und Svenja Taubner) sind hier versammelt. Ausnahmen von den überwiegend in den USA produzierten Serien bilden die deutsche Lindenstraße (Bernhard Strauß), die österreichische Serie Vorstadtweiber (Jutta Menschik-Bendele) und die italienische Serie Gomorrha (Isolde Böhme). Da nicht im Einzelnen auf jeden der zwanzig Beiträge eingegangen werden kann, wird diese Rezension nur einen Gesamteindruck und die Lektüre einiger Texte zusammenfassen. Beim Durchblättern fällt besonders die Gestaltung des Bandes auf, zumindest der an Lektüre von akademischer Literatur gewohnten Rezensentin. Die Inhaltsangabe der einzelnen Aufsätze erscheint vor dem Hintergrund einer Kinosaalabbildung. Auf der Leinwand ist eine Szene der im Text besprochenen Serie zu sehen. Die darauffolgende Seite zeigt jeweils ein DVD-Cover, versehen mit Copyright-Angaben. Auf jeder zweiten Seite gibt es im linken oberen Feld, neben der Angabe der Seitenzahl einen etwa passfotogroßen Screenshot zu sehen. Darüber hinaus finden sich viele Farbabbildungen (genau 70). Zitate aus den Serien sind in doppelter Schriftgröße rot gedruckt, andere längere Zitate visuell mit durchgehenden Linien abgesetzt. Der Band ist also auffällig bunt gestaltet für ein inhaltlich akademisches Buch, oft jedoch mit wenig Erkenntniswert, wodurch sich der Eindruck einer Werbeschaltung nicht vermeiden lässt. Die tatsächliche Werbung des Springer-Verlags auf den letzten Seiten legt nahe, dass der Band, aufgrund der ähnlichen Cover-Gestaltung, Teil einer nicht näher benannten Reihe ist. Somit ist anzunehmen, dass nicht die Herausgeber*innen selbst, sondern der Verlag für die Gestaltung verantwortlich ist. Die Auswahl der Serien beruhe auf dem persönlichen Zugang bzw. der Vorliebe der Autor*innen, wie im Vorwort zu lesen ist. Die Motivation des Bandes wird wiederum mit zwei Gegebenheiten begründet: Zum einen die Beobachtung der Herausgeber*innen, dass Serien dem Film in vielerlei Hinsicht den Rang ablaufen. Zum anderen gaben Veranstaltungsreihen, wie z. B. "PsychoanalytikerInnen kommentieren Filme" den Impuls, Psychoanalytiker*innen über Fernsehserien schreiben zu lassen. Dieser wurde dann um einen transdisziplinären Ansatz erweitert, so dass auch Autor*innen aus der Sozialpsychologie, Medien- und Kulturwissenschaft, Amerikanistik, Philosophie und Forensik angefragt wurden. Die Herausgeber*innen Timo Storck und Svenja Taubner haben wie die Mehrzahl der Autor*innen einen psychoanalytischen Hintergrund. Taubner ist psychologische Psychotherapeutin und Psychoanalytikerin, sowie Direktorin des Instituts für Psychoasoziale Prävention am Universitätsklinikum Heidelberg. Storck ist Professor für Klinische Psychologie und Psychotherapie an der Psychologischen Hochschule Berlin. Dementsprechend wird bereits in der Einleitung auf die methodologische Schwerpunktsetzung der Psychoanalyse und psychoanalytische Filmtheorie eingegangen. Diese wird in den einzelnen Beiträgen freilich unterschiedlich angewandt. Für die Herausgeber*innen beinhaltet eine psychoanalytische Perspektive, die eigene Reaktion auf eine Serie zu betrachten und zu befragen "und sie so zum Ausgangspunkt einer Interpretation über Beziehungen zu machen"[1] (S. 5). Das Ergebnis sei nicht, etwas über das individuell Unbewusste auszusagen, sondern "potenziell über gesellschaftlich Unbewusstes" (ebd.), wobei hier auf einen ethnopsychoanalytischen Ansatz Bezug genommen wird. Dabei verstehen Storck und Taubner die Psychoanalyse als Ergänzung anderer theoretischer Zugänge, wie die der Medienwissenschaft, Kulturwissenschaft und Psychologie. Der Psychoanalytiker Ralf Zwiebel beschreibt seinen methodischen Zugang in den einleitenden Bemerkungen seiner Interpretation von In Treatment als einen Dialog zwischen Filmkunst und Psychoanalyse. Da die Serie In Treatment explizit Psychotherapie thematisiert – jede Episode zeigt eine Sitzung des Therapeuten Paul Weston – begreift Zwiebel die fiktiven Personen in der Serie als Repräsentant*innen eines Typus von Therapeut*in bzw. Patient*in und deren Problematiken wie Narzissmus oder Alterskrise. Er betont ausdrücklich, dass er sich nicht ausschließlich auf das Narrativ der Serie bezieht, sondern visuelle Komponenten, räumliche Gestaltung und filmtechnische Aspekte wie Verdichtung und Zuspitzungen ebenso miteinbezieht. Und obwohl die Serie von Psychoanalytiker*innen, wie Zwiebel selbst, als Anschauungsmaterial benutzt wird, geht es ihm nicht darum, wie realistisch die Therapie in der Serie dargestellt[2], sondern um die Frage, welches Bild von Psychotherapie vermittelt wird. Svenja Taubner bezieht sich in ihrem Beitrag "'We are the walking dead' – neue Formen des Altruismus in einer Zombiewelt" auf die Psychologie und Evolutionstheorie, um ihre Hauptthese zu erläutern, dass in der Serie The Walking Dead die Frage nach dem 'Survival of the Fittest' neu gestellt und Egoismus antagonistischem Altruismus gegenübergestellt wird. Die Frage an sich scheint gut gewählt, ließe sich jedoch politischer stellen und auch anders beantworten. Meiner Ansicht nach setzt sich die Ideologie des Überlebens des Stärkeren im Verlauf der Serie weit stärker durch, als es die Autorin beschreibt. Taubner demonstriert vor allem anhand des Hauptcharakters Rick Grimes, wie verschiedene Spielarten eines empathischen bis pathologischen Altruismus durchgespielt werden. Obwohl dieser alle sieben Staffeln überlebt, könnte man daraus ebenso folgern, dass er dies nicht wegen, sondern trotz seines Altruismus tut. Politisch ist nicht nur fragwürdig, dass dieser durch seine Funktion als ehemaliger Polizist als vermeintlicher Retter auftritt, sondern auch, dass die Evolutionstheorie einfach umgeschrieben wird. Denn laut Taubner wird "auf der Grundlage der Idee einer Multi-Level-Selektion das Überleben einer kooperierenden Gruppe" (S. 45) gegenüber 'egoistisch' handelnden Gruppen oder Gruppenmitgliedern gesichert. Das Narrativ der Serie vermittelt jedoch, dass es in einer regierungs- und scheinbar staatenlosen Gesellschaft[3] zwingend (An-)Führer geben muss. Es werden immer neue Diktatoren (wie der 'Governor') generiert, die das Publikum faszinieren oder abstoßen zu vermögen. Die Serie zeichnet entsprechend kein anarchistisches oder hierarchieloses Gesellschaftsmodell. Da aber gerade Zombiefilme oftmals Allegorien gesellschaftlicher Zustände produzieren, ist in dieser Hinsicht meiner Einschätzung nach die Serie reaktionär und stellt die altruistische Position auch als nervend dar, wie Taubner richtig bemerkt. Etwas strittig erscheint mir auch der Beitrag der Amerikanistin Birgit Däwes, die sich mit den ersten beiden Staffeln von True Detective auseinandersetzt. Da sie explizit einen semiotischen und intertextuellen Ansatz verfolgt, erstaunt es, dass Däwes nicht auf aktuelle philosophische Referenzen wie Ray Brassier oder Eugene Thacker eingeht, die selbst in dem Wikipedia-Eintrag zur Serie erwähnt werden. Stattdessen bezieht sie sich lediglich auf kanonischere Werke von Ambrose Bierce und Robert W. Chambers aus der Zeit um die Jahrhundertwende, die auch buchstäblich in der Serie zitiert werden. Zudem weist sie auf "vielgestaltige Grenzüberschreitungen" (S. 320) hinsichtlich Genres (hard-boiled detective fiction und andere klassische Detektiverzählungen wie denen von Edgar Allen Poe und Arthur Conan Doyle, sowie den Film noir und Alfred Hitchcock), Zeitebenen, Räumlichkeiten und gesellschaftlichen Normen hin. Auch ihre Kritik an der "Behandlung der Frauenfiguren" und der "ethnischen Repräsentation" (S. 230) bleibt oberflächlich, ebenso wie ihr Ausblick, der sich schlicht damit zusammenfassen lässt, dass aus (Lebens-)Zeitgründen die Ära der komplexen Quality-TV-Serien vorbei sei und im kleinen Format die Zukunft der Serie liege. Interessanter erscheinen mir die Beiträge, die sich eingehender mit der Signifikanz von 'race' und 'gender' in Serien auseinandersetzen, wie etwa Timo Storcks Beitrag zu Mad Men, Christine Kirchhoffs Analyse von Grey's Anatomy und Ulrike Kadis Interpretation von Masters of Sex. Mad Men zeige, so Timo Storck, dass Rassismus in den USA nicht nur ein Problem von 'rednecks' und 'white trash' in den Südstaaten sei, wie man sie in der ersten Staffel von True Detective sehen kann. Die Serie lege Rassismus vielmehr als Norm offen. Die zeitliche Verortung in den 1960ern habe keinen nostalgischen, sondern einen verfremdenden Effekt. Diese Verfremdung und Distanz sorge nicht nur dafür, dass Mad Men eine Identifikation des Publikums mit den Charakteren verunmöglicht, sondern schlägt sich auch in der Darstellung der Geschlechterverhältnisse nieder. Storck beruft sich (wie auch Ulrike Kadi in ihrem Beitrag) auf Jacques Lacans Formulierung "Es gibt kein Geschlechterverhältnis", um die Nicht-Beziehung zwischen den Geschlechtern in Mad Men zu thematisieren. Lacan wendet sich mit diesem Satz gegen die Illusion, dass sich Männer und Frauen gegenseitig ergänzen und somit gegen ein bestimmtes heteronormatives Liebesideal. Mad Men zeige dementsprechend vielmehr die verfehlte Beziehung zum 'Anderen', Masters of Sex dagegen die Versuche der Sexualwissenschaft dieses 'Fehl' mit Sinn, Bedeutung und Sprache zu füllen, wie Kadi analysiert. Es finden sich mehrere solcher Korrespondenzen in dem Band, sei es die zwischen Psychoanalyse und Film- und Medientheorie oder jene zwischen Co-Autor*innenschaften. Neben der genannten Formulierung Lacans, die in zwei Beiträgen aufgegriffen wird, werden auch in anderen Beiträgen Polaritäten und duale Ordnungen thematisiert: um die duale Geschlechterordnung und deren Subversion geht es auch in den Texten zu Girls und Sex and the City. Der Beitrag "Married. With a Mission" behandelt die Dualität von Privatem und Politischem in The Americans, die Polarität von Privatem und Beruflichen ist Thema in "Die ewig jungen Ärzte" von Christiane Kirchhoff. Das charakteristische Unterlaufen der Opposition von Gut und Böse im sogenannten Quality-TV steht im Fokus der Interpretation von Dexter (in dem Beitrag des forensischen Psychiaters Philipp Masing) und von Breaking Bad. Andreas Hamburger und Bettina Hahn folgen dabei dem bereits angesprochenen filmpsychoanalytischen Ansatz, das Unbewusste des Publikums zu analysieren, wobei sie die Serie als Langzeit-Psychoanalyse begreifen. Gerade der Fokus auf psychoanalytische Perspektiven hebt den Sammelband von vielen anderen Publikationen ab, sowohl von denen, die sich mit Fernsehserien befassen, als auch von denjenigen, die lediglich eine repräsentierte Psychoanalyse thematisieren. [1] Ein Beispiel für diesen Zugang wäre ein Kommentar zur Rede vom "binge watching". Es wird dabei auf den Begriff des "binge eating" aus der psychiatrischen Nosologie verwiesen, einem Symptom, bei dem die Betroffenen die Kontrolle über ihr Essverhalten verlieren. Timo Storck/Svenja Taubner: "Einleitung, oder Previously on TV", S. 2. [2] Zu einem solchen Vergleich zwischen Realität und Fiktion vgl. u. a. Brett Karr: "Dr. Paul Weston and the bloodstained couch". In: International Journal of Psychoanalysis 92, 2011, S. 1051-1058. [3] Scheinbar deshalb, weil das Publikum kaum etwas über den Zustand der Welt jenseits des Radius einer Gruppe von Überlebenden um Rick Grimes herum erfährt.

[spa] En esta tesis se investiga la evolución y el desarrollo de la disciplina enfermera, desde sus inicios en España a principios del siglo XX hasta la situación actual de la profesión y de los estudios de Enfermería. Para ello, se analizan, además de la evolución histórica de la profesión enfermera, las diferentes etapas de su desarrollo hasta llegar a la convergencia en el marco del Espacio Europeo de Educación Superior (EEES). La disciplina enfermera ha evolucionado en el contexto de los acontecimientos históricos y movimientos sociales. Existe un acuerdo bien establecido sobre que el eje fundamental de la profesión enfermera es el cuidado y cualquiera que sea la concepción de los cuidados, estos se insertan obligadamente en un sistema de valores y creencias influenciados por el conjunto de factores sociales, culturales, económicos y políticos de la sociedad y también por la concepción que se tenga de la propia profesión y de la evolución de la ciencia enfermera. Por otro lado, en tanto que la Enfermería forma parte de las profesiones sanitarias, los cambios ocurridos en el seno de éstas en su conjunto y, en especial, desde mediados del pasado siglo, en lo que se refiere a la redefinición de sus objetivos y prioridades (por ejemplo, la irrupción de los denominados "derechos de los enfermos" y su plasmación en normas en diferentes países o, incluso, en Convenios y Declaraciones supranacionales) han contribuido a que se hayan ido incorporando a la teoría y la práctica de la Enfermería elementos integrantes de una Bioética más extensa de lo que inicialmente fue una Bioética centrada casi exclusivamente en la Ética Médica, es decir en los profesionales médicos. Ello justifica que esta tesis se presente en la línea de doctorado en "Bioética y Derecho", porque la capacitación y la formación de los profesionales de enfermería han de repercutir, sin duda alguna, en su relación con los ciudadanos a quiénes atiendan, cuestión que entra de lleno en el ámbito de la Bioética. ; [eng] This Thesis researches the evolution and the development of the Nursery discipline, from his starts in Spain at the beginning of the 20th century until the current situation of the Nursing profession and the studios in the Nursery Schools. For this, I analyse, in addition to the historical evolution of the profession, the different stages of his development until arriving to the convergence in the frame of the European Space of Higher Education (ESHE). The Nursery discipline has evolved in the context of the historical events and social movements. It exists a very established agreement on that the fundamental axis of the profession nurse is the care and any one that was the conception of the cares, these inserts by force in a system of values and beliefs affected by the set of social, cultural, economic and politician factors of the society and also by the conception that have of the own profession and of the evolution of the science nurse. On the other hand, whereas the Nursery belong of the sanitary professions, the changes occurred in the heart of these in his set and, especially, from mediated of the past century, regarding the redesign of his aims and priorities (for example, the irruption of the designated "rights of the patients" and his concretion in norms in different countries or, even, in international Agreements and Statements) have contributed to that have gone incorporating to the theory and the practice of the Nursery elements of a Bioethics more extensive of what initially was a Bioethics centred almost exclusively in the Medical Ethics, that is to say in the medical professionals. This justifies the submission of this Thesis in the line of doctorate in Bioethics and Law, because the enabling and the formation of the professionals of Nursery affects, beyond all doubt, in the relation with the citizens to who attend, question that goes in of full in the field of the Bioethics. ; [cat] En aquesta tesi s'investiga l'evolució i el desenvolupament de la disciplina infermera, des dels seus inicis a Espanya a principis del segle XX fins a la situació actual de la professió i dels estudis d'Infermeria. Per a això, s'analitzen, a més de l'evolució històrica de la professió d'infermera, les diferents etapes del seu desenvolupament fins arribar a la convergència en el marc de l'Espai Europeu d'Educació Superior (EEES). La disciplina infermera ha evolucionat en el context dels esdeveniments històrics i moviments socials. Existeix un acord ben establert sobre que l'eix fonamental de la professió infermera és el fet de cuidar, i sigui quina sigui la concepció que hom tingui de les cures, aquestes s'insereixen obligadament en un sistema de valors i creences influenciats pel conjunt de factors socials, culturals, econòmics i polítics de la societat i també per la concepció que hom tingui de la professió i de l'evolució de la ciència infermera. D'altra banda, atès que la Infermeria forma part de les professions sanitàries, els canvis ocorreguts en el si d'aquestes en el seu conjunt i, especialment, des de mitjan passat segle, pel que fa a la redefinició dels seus objectius i prioritats (per exemple, la irrupció dels denominats "drets dels malalts" i la seva concreció en normes de diferents països o, fins i tot, en Convenis i Declaracions supranacionals) han contribuït al fet que s'hagin anat incorporant a la teoria i la pràctica de la Infermeria elements integrants d'una Bioètica més extensa del que inicialment va ser una Bioètica centrada gairebé exclusivament en l'Ètica Mèdica, és a dir en els professionals mèdics. Això justifica la presentació d'aquesta Tesi en la línia de doctorat en "Bioètica i Dret", perquè la capacitació i la formació dels professionals d'infermeria forçosament ha d'incidir en la relació amb els ciutadans a qui atenguin, qüestió que entra de ple en l'àmbit de la Bioètica.