Suchergebnisse

Laut einer aktuellen Umfrage von Infratest Dimap für den ARD-Deutschland Trend befürchtet rund ein Drittel der Erwerbstätigen, im Alter arm zu sein. Auch für das Bundesministerium für Arbeit und Soziales ist die Vermeidung von Altersarmut zu einem zentralen Anliegen geworden, wie sein Entwurf zu einem Alterssicherungsstärkungsgesetz
belegt. Derzeit ist die Armutsgefährdung der über 65-Jährigen nicht besonders ausgeprägt, wenngleich Noll/Weick (2012) in ihren Analysen für den Zeitraum 2003 bis 2008 eine steigende Tendenz der Altersarmut beobachten, die in den neuen Bundesländern deutlicher zu erkennen ist als in den alten Bundesländern. Als mögliche Ursachen für
eine künftige Zunahme der Altersarmut werden die gegenüber früheren Erwerbsbiografien zunehmend unstetigen Erwerbsverläufe, Langzeitarbeitslosigkeit, Beschäftigung im
Niedriglohnbereich, aber auch das Risiko einer Erwerbsminderung (EM) gesehen (Rische/Kreikebohm 2012). Erwerbsgeminderte Personen haben ein höheres Risiko im Alter arm zu sein, und es stellt sich die Frage, ob durch die Erwerbsminderungsrente – und gegebenenfalls
vorhandene andere Einkünfte – eine ausreichende materielle Absicherung des betroffenen Personenkreises gewährleistet ist.

"Wie der Überblick über die Datenlage zeigt, kann das Altersvorsorgeverhalten einschließlich der daraus abgeleiteten Anwartschaften auf Alterssicherung nur unzureichend abgebildet werden. Für die Aussagekraft der GRV-Statistiken gilt, dass sie tendenziell abnehmen wird, weil der GRV-Anteil an den gesamten Alterseinkünften für einen Großteil der Versicherten zukünftig sinken wird. Generell mangelt es an hinreichend großen Längsschnittdatensätzen, die den Erwerbsverlauf und die Nacherwerbsphase berücksichtigen, sodass nachgezeichnet werden könnte, welches Vorsorgeportfolio für welche Personengruppe zu welchem Absicherungsniveau im Alter geführt hat und wie sich dieses in der Ruhestandsphase entwickelt. Hinzu kommt, dass Umfragedaten häufig bestimmte Personenkreise ausschließen, wie beispielsweise Personen mit Migrationshintergrund oder Heimbewohner, weil ihre Berücksichtigung aus verschiedenen Gründen schwierig ist. Dies ist besonders problematisch, weil dieser Personenkreis aufgrund des demographischen Wandels zukünftig an Bedeutung gewinnen wird. Demgegenüber ist die Datenlage zur materiellen Situation von Haushalten älterer Menschen vergleichsweise gut. Allerdings bestehen auch hier Informationslücken. Zu diesen gehören insbesondere Informationen über die Höhe und Entwicklung von Alterseinkünften während der Ruhestandsphase. Ein weiteres Beispiel für eine nötige Verbesserung der Fragebögen stellen Fragen nach dem Immobilienbesitz und seiner Nutzung dar." (Autorenreferat)

The paper deals with a topic relating to the economic growth, development and general welfare of a national economy, a wider region, or even the entire world, through indicators that differentiate growth from development. It is a complex subject that contains numerous aspects of the life of a community in a certain space, which, because of its complexity, cannot be limited exclusively to economic aspects, so because of that cannot be limited exclusively to economic or monetary indicators. Life in a community besides the economic includes also legal, sociological, philosophical, psychological and other aspects, from which it logically results that measuring the development and welfare is a complex process that can hardly be limited to one indicator. In that sense, the paper addresses issues relating to production, distribution, fairness and equality, employment, unemployment, poverty, productivity, economic stability, sustainable development, human development, a sense of well-being and happiness, etc., in the direction of the thesis for the use of complementary development indicators. The complexity of the process of harmonizing the numerous indicators is further complicated by the need to calculate the degree of their mutual correlation, especially if it concerns divergent indicators or indicators that are mutually exclusive or have a negative correlation. The issue of welfare has been the subject of economic science interest since its very beginnings, even from the time of the first ancient thinkers when it was not singled out as an independent science, through the utopians, to contemporary economic thought. The economic operation and the rational use of limited resources in order to meet unlimited human needs is the heart of the economy. The basic indicator used to measure economic growth is undoubtedly the GDP and GDP per capita. But one has to take into account the distinction between quantitative growth and qualitative development, whereby GDP is an indicator of growth. Development is a broader concept that covers growth, but also technological and any other kind of advancement of the social community. Development as a qualitative feature means the advancement of the qualitative characteristics of society and the well-being of individuals, and the well-being is not only the increase of GDP, but the subjective sense of the people in the community that they live better, a sense of improving the quality of life. Growth and development together make the progress of the community. In this sense the paper elaborates just a few indicators of growth and development that are used parallel, such as GDP, Human Development Index, and the World Happiness index, that do not exclude each other and whose interwoven use gives a fuller picture of growth and development although the ranking of countries around the world according to one of these indicators may be quite different with respect to the ranking according to the other indicator. This only confirms the thesis of the need for a more comprehensive analysis of the analyzed issues and suggestions for a more comprehensive indicator that would be a complementary set of several alternative and complementary ones that would eliminate the shortcomings of its constituent parts, thereby obtaining a relevant indicator of economic development and welfare, without any intention to propose a concrete solution.

Population should be in the central focus of local community institutions and
the local community may constitute its population policy which will
supplement state population policy measures, considering the local specific
various traditions, values and models of living. The paper's basic goal is to
critically perceive the characteristics, significance and role of local
self-governments in the current population policy of Serbia. Social situation
and social policy characteristics in Serbia are analyzed in the context of
the population policy. It is pointed out that poverty, unemployment, the
economic crisis, the process of privatization, the issue of system
decentralization and social expectations of the population, as current
expressions of transition, all have a consequence on the demographic
development and population policy. A critical estimation of the activities in
the field of population policies which are carried out by local and
provincial self-governments in Serbia in the last decade are brought into
focus, with a special review to the activities of provincial and local
governments in the Autonomous Province of Vojvodina. As a result of the
analysis it is pointed out that the population and social policy measures
have been separated since the year 2000 and that they have been directed only
to stimulating births and not child raising and that solutions regarding
maternity leave brought improvements, however shortened maternity leave for
the third child. The new conception of the population policy brought a whole
series of restrictions such as: suspension of aid for newborn essentials;
discontinuance of the right to maternity allowance; abolishing of
compensation for preschool expenses for the third child; children?s allowance
lost its population measures character along with considerable tightening of
the census and decreasing of amount; the activities of preschool facilities
have been reduced only to an educational function, and the terms for
realizing rights to preschool education for children without parents and
children with special needs have been tightened. The authors point out to the
values and principles on which a contemporary population policy of local
self-governments in Serbia should be established, such as: stability of
established measures, a clear message on the needs of society, compatibility
and not uniformity with measures of other bodies, compassion and uniformity
with aspirations of couples and individuals, respect for the rights and
freedom of man, information availability, equality of birth and raising
children in measures. The establishment of population policy municipality
funds is suggested and that local population policy measures are both
material and non-material type, as well as in the form of organizational
measures which could use the existing resources in a better way. The
municipal assembly should create organizational suppositions by appointing a
Population Policy Commission as its permanent body. The Commission would
propose to the Municipal Assembly to adopt a strategic document - the
Population Policy Strategy in the municipality. The Municipality Assembly
should adopt the Action Plan for carrying out of the population policy every
year, which would define the measures, bearers, terms and methods of
evaluating measures with a plan for the following year. The population policy
of the local self-government should be a constant process which manages,
follows and evaluates, which is public and which understands the engagement
of competent people, participation of citizens-volunteers and civil
organizations.

Population geography is a subdiscipline of Human geography and studies the
distribution, concentration and density of population over the terestrial
surface, as well as differences in population size, changes and
characteristics, like structures, migrations, activity etc, among some places
present compared to others. Population geography has had a perscientific
stage as long as human history. First modern scientific treatis of population
in geography was the F. Ratzels book Antropogeography in 1882. During the
first half of the XX century, French geographer Vidal de la Blanche gave a
capital importance of population studies in his work Principes de Geographie
Humaine. In interwar years, various aspects of population were studied. After
The Second World War started the renovating movement of geography and new
tendencies appear in human geography and, consequently in population
geography. Attempts were made to define population geography as a separate
sub-discipline. The world wide trend of treating population geography as
separate discipline was expressed by publishing monographs, bibliographies
and textbooks. The most significant authors who worked on defining population
geography were French geographers P. George (1951, 1959), Beaujen-Garnier
(1965, 1966); North-american geographers: G. Trewarta (1953, 1969), W. Bunge
(1962), J. Clance (1965, 1971), W. Zelinski (1966); in Great Britain: J.I.
Clarke (1965); in USSR: Ju.G. Sauskin i D.N. Anucin (1950), V.V. Poksisevskij
(1966), D.I. Valentej (1973); in Poland V. Ormotski (1931), L. Kosinski
(1967) A. Jagelski (1980). Those authors and their works had the significant
influence on the development of population science in the world and also in
Serbia. Although the development of population geography was different in
different countries and scientific research centers, we can clearly defined
four stages. First stage lasted untill 1960s and was characterised by works
of G.Trewarta, H. Doerres Ju.G. Sauskin, D.N. Anucin, J. Beaujeu-Gariner. G.
Trewarta argued that the population is the point of reference from which all
other elements are observed and from which all derive significance and
meaning. This view was adopted and shared by authors dealing with population
items, explicitly or implicitly. Second stage lasted from 1960s till 1970s
and the most significant authors dealing with population problems were W.
Zelinsky, W. Bunge; H.Bobek, W. Hartke, K.Ruppert, F.Schaffer; D.I. Valentej,
K.Korcak. This phase was characterized by the application of quantitative
methods and efforts for understanding the spatial structure of the
population. Many scientists see this development phase as a particularly
prosperous period, because it carried more intensive relations of geography
and demography through the introduction of statistical, mathematical and
demographic methods and techniques in studies of population geography. Third
phase lasted from 1970s to 1980s, and was characterized by close relations
between population geography and formal demography. Development and
application of GIS and computer data, have made population studies more
complex and applicable in practice, through population policy and population
projections. The most significant authors in this period were L. Kosinski, A.
Jagelski, H?gerstrand. And at last, fourth stage started in 1980s and in many
countries lastes untill present days. In population geography appeared new
tendencies associated with the critique of positivism, the establishment of
humanistic approaches and modifications of general geographic concepts. In
this period, spatial analysis and quantitative scientific methods were
reaffirmed, and because of that some population studies were redefined in
spatial demography, a time dimension advocated in historical demography. In
this context, we emphasize the work of D. Plane and P. Rogerson. Population
geography is viewed differently from one country to another. Its definition
differs from too narrow to overly broad. But two research areas were of
particular interest to geographers - population distribution and migration.
Both items acquired an international dimension. Recently, eminent population
geographers exchanged various view points in an attempt to provoke new
thinking on subject and define the answers of new fields research in
population geography. Population geography in the XXI Century is no longer a
field comprised of spatial applications of fertility, mortality and migration
only. Contemporary population geography is theoretically sophisticated,
integrating spatial analysis, GIS and geo-referenced data. Future progress in
the field of population geography will derive from more research at the
intersections of population processes and societal issues and concerns. Major
themes of future empirical researches in population geography should be:
global population growth, studies of migration, transnationalism, human
security issues, population-health-environment nexus, human-environment
sustainability, economic development and poverty issues.

Purpose
This paper aims to explore the complex underpinnings and dynamics of increasing trend of illegal trading of high-value forest tress such as sandalwood in rural parts of Kenya, which has moved from highly opportunistic and culturally accepted activities to highly complex, commercial, criminal and entrepreneurial activity. The paper focuses on two theoretical frameworks: the first concerns with criminological concepts which underlie illegal logging, perpetrators and criminal network of smuggling of sandalwood from Kenya to overseas; the second focuses on the entrepreneurial process of the illegal trade of the endangered species. The central aim is to establish a confluence of criminology (rural and environmental) and entrepreneurship – the product of which can be useful in understanding emerging and highly sophisticated international crimes such smuggling and trafficking of sandalwood tree product. It proposes that sandalwood poaching just like other transnational crimes such as wildlife poaching is a highly organized international crime that involves more than one individual. The paper concludes by suggesting that sandalwood poaching is an entrepreneurial activity that impinges on criminological process, and to fully address the problem, we must address the supply and demand forces and the normative and social structure of source area.


Design/methodology/approach
This paper uses a systematic review and immersion in literature from journals, books, government and non-governmental organization publications to raise debates and discourses on issues pertaining to the phenomena of sandalwood poaching in Kenya. It also entailed sieving through court judgments, newspaper articles and TV news to backup above information.


Findings
First, what has emanated from this study is that criminal cartels have directed their criminal business of sandalwood poaching to Kenya because force of demand and supply of precious wood, institution failures and regulatory and policy failures. Second, sandalwood poaching is ostensibly organized international enterprise crime that relies on division of labor to succeed. Third, more restrictive controls act as incentives to criminals to smuggle the wood. Finally, the more endangered the sandalwood, the more valuable and profitable it is and the more the poor countries and rural areas suffer from environmental degradation.


Research limitations/implications
Methodologically, one of the major limitations of this paper is that it is based on documentary analysis, because of a lack of research time and available finances. Prospective studies should consider utilizing in-depth interviews to gather evidence from offenders, police, rural residents and other government officials.


Practical implications
The paper contributes to growing fields of entrepreneurial, environmental and rural criminology. Methodologically, certain crimes such sandalwood poaching requires an intertwine of concepts of criminological and entrepreneurship for better understanding.


Social implications
To environmentalist, foresters, jurist, law enforcers and rural local residents; there is an urgent need to rethink how poaching of valuable endangered biodiversity species is treated, responded and promoted. To end poaching of sandalwood, there is a need to fundamentally realign tactics from criminalization and enforcement to address endemic cancer of poverty, unemployment and corruption present at source countries. This will indeed reduce economic vulnerabilities that cartels take advantage by engaging the locals in extracting sandalwood from trees. It will also reduce the power of networks but instead increase guardianship measures.


Originality/value
The originality of paper is the utilization of two theoretical frameworks: the first concerns with criminological concepts which underlie illegal logging, perpetrators and criminal network of smuggling of sandalwood from Kenya to overseas; and, second, the paper focuses on the entrepreneurial process of the illegal trade of the endangered species. The central aim is to establish a confluence of criminology (rural and environmental) and entrepreneurship – the product of which can be useful in understanding emerging and highly sophisticated international crimes such smuggling and trafficking of sandalwood tree product.

Este artigo busca historicizar contextos que reorientaram a noção de desenvolvimento, no Brasil, desde os anos 30-80, passando pelo ajuste neoliberal dos anos 90, até inflexões atuais que indagam se o novo intervencionismo massivo e estratégico do Estado em políticas sociais para os mais pobres aponta para um novo modelo de desenvolvimento. A análise apresenta inflexões do modelo cepalino de 50-60 e tenta priorizar dimensões sociais na mediação das contradições entre a economia, a política e o institucional. O fio condutor toma dois vetores analíticos: o tema do conflito (redistributivo) e o da integração. O primeiro é assentado nas coalizões das classes e confronto entre atores nacionais e agências multilaterais; e o da integração, na contraface do conflito, considera a abertura das políticas públicas e, também, a inovação de atores sociais e políticos em novos arranjos voltados para os objetivos do bem-estar social e da cidadania, de uma perspectiva mais sustentada. PALAVRAS-CHAVE: desenvolvimento, modernização, ajuste estrutural, Estado, políticas sociais, pobreza. THE PARADIGM OF DEVELOPMENT: from the founding myth to the new development Anete B.L. Ivo This paper aims at historicizing the contexts that reorient the concept of development in Brazil, from the 30s to the 80s, going through the neoliberal adjustment of the 90s, to the current inflections that question if the new massive and strategic interventionism of the State in social policies for the poorest points to a new model of development. The analysis presents inflections of the cepalino model, Cepal's theory (Economic Commission for Latin America) of the 50s and 60s, in order to prioritize the social dimensions to mediate contradictions amongst economics, politics and institutional affairs. The leading thread adopts two analytical vectors: the topic of conflict (redistribution) and integration. The former is established on class coalitions and confrontation between national actors and multilateral agencies; integration, in the counterface of the conflict, takes into consideration the opening of public policies as well as the innovation of social and political actors in new arrangements oriented to the objectives of the social welfare and citizenship, from a more supported perspective. KEY WORDS: development, modernization, structural adjustment, State, social policies, poverty. LE PARADIGME DU DÉVELOPPEMENT: du mythe fondateur au nouveau développement Anete B.L. Ivo Cet article cherche à historiciser les contextes qui réorientent la notion de développement au Brésil, des années 30 aux années 80, en passant par l'ajustement néolibéral des années 90 pour en arriver aux inflexions actuelles qui se demandent si l'interventionisme massif et stratégique de l'État au sein des politiques sociales en faveur des plus pauvres est le signe d'un nouveau modèle de développement. L'analyse montre des inflexions du modèle cépalien des années 50-60 et essaie de donner la priorité à des dimensions sociales dans la médiation des contradictions entre l'économie, la politique et l'institutionnel. Le fil conducteur suit deux vecteurs d'analyse: le thème du conflit (redistributif) et celui de l'intégration. Le premier se base sur les coalitions de classes et les conflits entre les acteurs nationaux et les agences multilatérales; et celui de l'intégration, à l'opposé du conflit, qui considère l'ouverture des politiques publiques, mais aussi l'innovation acteurs sociaux et politiques dans de nouveaux arrangements qui visent des objectifs de bien-être social et de citoyenneté de manière plus soutenue. MOTS-CLÉS: développement, modernisation, ajustement structurel, État, politiques sociales, pauvreté. Publicação Online do Caderno CRH: http://www.cadernocrh.ufba.br Publicação Online do Caderno CRH no Scielo: http://www.scielo.br/ccrh

The study drew inspiration from the need to counteract the ensuing failures of
modern systems in addressing development challenges especially at local level
despite several efforts by government to invest resources in poverty reduction
and general developmental interventions. The study identified the alienation of
indigenous knowledge systems in the mainstream modern systems of Environmental
Education (EE) and development planning as a compounding problem that accounted
for development stagnation in the communities. This alienation created the gap in
knowledge since modern systems were generally found to be inadequate in addressing
developmental issues, particularly at a local level. The lack of local relevance of most
modern systems justified the call for integration of indigenous systems.
The study focused on the need to establish linkages between the modern and
indigenous systems of environmental education and their influence on development
planning in Zambia. In so doing, the study proposed an approach to remedy the
alienation of indigenous systems in the mainstream processes of EE and development
planning by suggesting a synergy between the two systems. The study involved
an assessment of some inherent policies, strategies, processes, methodologies and
perceptions about EE and development planning. It, therefore, largely dealt with non-
concrete ideas to which the reader is introduced. This point is crucial in appreciating
the main orientation of the study.
Descriptive research design was applied with qualitative approaches. The respondents
were purposively sampled and included government officers and other modern experts,
NGOs, and traditional leaders. A comparative analysis of modern systems was further
made through a global dimension where the Zambian modern system and that of
selected foreign countries, Germany and Montenegro were reviewed.
The study established that the approaches applied in environmental education and
general nature conservation were related to the country's guiding principles which also
reflected the overall vision, where it existed. Furthermore, a number of environmental
policy instruments were examined and the following were identified as the main
instruments: Direct regulation, Indirect regulation, Self-regulation, and A combination of the above instruments.
Proposed Synergies Between Indigenous and Modern Systems of Environmental Education
From the study results, differences in perceptions of and approaches to environmental
education were evident at both country and individual levels. For instance, while in
Zambia, environmental education was a school subject, in Germany it was not but
its ideals were generally incorporated in the teaching of all subjects. In Montenegro,
too, there was no school subject called environmental education but the concept had
greatly influenced the school curriculum such that emphasis was put on environmental
content in all the subjects, focusing more on human-nature relationships.
The study also showed that direct regulation had been prioritised in Zambia
compared to self-regulation and this had a bearing on public participation in
development decision-making processes which are largely carried out in the planning
cycles. Varying perceptions were also identified at individual level among the modern
experts interviewed both in Zambia and those from other countries. However, existing
opportunities for synergy formulation at all levels were identified and based on these a
synergy was suggested.
Arising from the above observations the study recommended, among other things,
that the modern systems should adopt a broadened approach that promotes direct
contact with nature from a multi-dimensional perspective. This would also call for
curriculum and planning systems review to create an enabling education policy
and planning framework that would provide practical support to such an approach.
The promotion of culture, which was identified as a storage device for indigenous
knowledge, was also recommended to be prioritised.

Este trabalho consiste em uma análise da responsabilidade social empresarial (RSE) como um meio de supressão da política e esfera de manifestação do dissenso. A atuação de organizações como o GIFE (Grupo de Institutos Fundações e Empresas) e do Instituto Ethos de Empresas e Responsabilidade Social tem contribuído significativamente para a legitimação das ações de RSE como fontes produtoras de soluções para problemas sociais. Nesse sentido, entendemos que o fundamento ideológico dessa situação encontra-se em um discurso que visa a minimizar o papel do Estado como agente promotor de desenvolvimento social e atribuir aos pobres, como indíviduos, a responsabilidade pela permanência ou não na condição de pobreza. Tais práticas promovem o envolvimento dos beneficiados nas soluções de seus problemas, o que parece ser positivo do ponto de vista da criação de uma esfera de tomada mais democrática de decisões, todavia é preciso ter em mente que os saberes desses beneficiados só são considerados a partir de um esvaziamento do caráter de posturas efetivamente dissenssuais. PALAVRAS-CHAVE: responsabilidade social empresarial, ativismo social empresarial, sociedade civil, novo associativismo civil, dissenso. THE "SOCIAL ACTIVISM" OF BUSINESSES AND ITS BIAS ANTIDISSENSION Attila Magno e Silva Barbosa This paper consists of an analysis of the business social responsibility (RSE in Portuguese) as a means of suppression of politics as a sphere of dissent manifestation. The performance of organizations such as Group of Institutes, Foundations and Companies (in Portuguese, GIFE) and of the Instituto Ethos de Empresas e Responsabilidade Social (Ethos Institute of Companies and Social Responsability) has been contributing significantly to the legitimation of RSE actions as sources of solutions for social problems. In this sense, we understand that the ideological foundation of that situation lies in the discourse that seeks to minimize the role of the State as promoting agent of social development and to attribute to the poor, as individuals, the responsibility for their permanence in or out poverty. For no other reason, such practices promote the beneficiaries' involvement in the solutions of their problems, what seems to be positive from the point of view of creation of a sphere of more democratic decision-making. However, it is necessary to have in mind that these beneficiaries' knowledges are only considered if emptied of effectively dissentious postures. KEYWORDS: business social responsibility, business social activism, civilian society, new civilian associativism, dissent. L' "ACTIVISME SOCIAL" DES ENTREPRISES ET SON BIAIS ANTI-DISSENSUEL Attila Magno e Silva Barbosa Ce travail analyse la responsabilité sociale des entreprises (RSE) comme moyen de suppression de la politique en tant que sphère de manifestation du dissensus. Le travail des organisations telle que le GIFE (Groupe d'Instituts, de Fondations et d'Entreprises) et de l'Institut Ethos d'Entreprises et Responsabilité Sociale a beaucoup contribué à la légitimation des actions de la RSE en tant que source productrice de solutions pour les problèmes sociaux. Dans ce sens, il semblerait que le fondement idéologique de cette situation se trouve dans un discours qui vise à diminuer le rôle de l'Etat comme agent promoteur de développement social et d'attribuer aux pauvres, en tant qu'individus, la responsabilité du maintien ou non de leur condition de pauvreté. Pour les mêmes raisons, de telles pratiques permettent l'engagement des bénéficiaires dans la solution de leurs problèmes, ce qui semble être positif du point de vue de la création d'une sphère de prise de décisions plus démocratique. Néanmoins, il ne faut pas oublier que les savoirs de ces bénéficiaires ne sont pris en compte qu'à partir d'une perte de postures effectivement dissensuelles. MOTS-CLÉS: responsabilité sociale d'entreprise, activisme social d'entreprise, société civile, nouvelle associativité civile, dissensus. Publicação Online do Caderno CRH: http://www.cadernocrh.ufba.br

Purpose
– The purpose of this paper is to provide a critical and informative exploration of the emerging roles and rising influence of the Global South in shaping the future of global governance. Specifically, it inquires into the following questions: How is the Global South impacting the way we govern globally? What are the pushers, pulls and weights to the futures of global governance? Using Jim Dator's alternative futures archetype, what is the future of global governance? What are the emerging issues and trends?


Design/methodology/approach
– It uses Sohail Inayatullah's futures triangle to map the drivers – the pushes, pulls and weights of global governance and Jim Dator's archetypes – continued economic growth, collapse, conserver and transformation – to imagine and construct alternative futures of global governance.


Findings
– The futures triangle analysis maps and reveals three diverse but causally linked Global South narratives of global governance. The pulls of the future include the Brazil, Russia, India, China and South Africa leading the way, and emerging economies reinforcing the pluralization of global governance discourses and systems. New governance regimes create new global governance dynamics and North – South relations. Their increasing social, political and economic clout leads to new governance structures. The Global South's rising human development index, economic growth, decreasing financial reliance, the rise of minilateralism and South – South cooperation is a push of the present. Weights are recurring financial constraints, their lack of technical capacity, existing international laws, stagnating bureaucracy, poverty, domestic issues and state centrism (among others). Four alternative global governance scenarios emerge: a harmonious world is everybody's business – a state-centric and economic growth global governance future. Here, the dynamics of global governance remain the same as zero-sum thinking informs the rules of the game. In dangerous transitions and the rise of the rest, however, the status quo is disrupted as power shifts rapidly and detrimentally. Then, in mosaic of the old structure, the South embraces protectionism, and the old vanguards return. Finally, in all boats rise substantially, power is redistributed as emerging states gain larger, formal (and informal) leadership roles in global governance. The global world order is re-designed for the Global South. A world parliament is created and stronger regional confederation or unions emerge.


Research limitations/implications
– This paper extensively utilizes existing and emerging literature, official reports, blogs, interviews, books and other digital texts on global governance. The sources relevance is analyzed using the futures triangle tool and dissected to present four detailed scenarios using Dator's alternative futures archetype. This study seeks to initially explore alternative futures of global governance from the perspective of the Global South. While some studies have approached the topic, only a few authors have addressed global governance using futures tools and methods. The goal of this research is to map and explore some alternative futures of global governance. The paper is less useful in predicting what lies ahead. Its intention is to highlight the "rise of the different" and to create a space for more meaningful conversations on global governance.


Practical implications
– This research could provide futurists, policy-makers, international relations scholars and global governance advocates some alternative narratives, frameworks and images of global governance. While it does not offer any specific structures and solutions, it offers a number of emerging issues and perspectives from the Global South that decision-makers and institutions might want to consider as they rethink global governance.


Social implications
– This paper highlights the emerging roles and perspectives of the Global South in global governance. It identifies some "trading zones" and "emerging issues" that may inspire actors to create new global governance spaces, innovate alternative narratives and design new frameworks of global governance.


Originality/value
– It maps and constructs some plausible scenarios of global governance that emphasize Global South perspectives while using futures tools and methods.

No presente estudo teve-se como objetivo compreender os fatores que levaram pessoas da terceira idade a terem sua escolaridade usurpada e como a sua leitura de mundo contribui para preservar seus saberes e suas memórias com altivez. Como recurso metodológico, utilizou-se uma abordagem qualitativa do tipo descritiva. Os participantes foram três idosos integrantes do Centro de Convivência do Idoso de um município da Zona da Mata do Estado de Rondônia. As informações foram coletadas por meio de entrevistas estruturadas e analisadas seguindo as orientações da Análise de Conteúdo. Em relação ao aporte teórico, o presente estudo apoiou-se em autores como Bosi (2014), Beauvoir (1970), Freire (2015), entre outros. A partir dos relatos foi possível identificar cinco categorias temáticas: 1) a pobreza como marcador social determinante ao analfabetismo; 2) a exclusão familiar com a dimensão no convívio e no relacionamento; 3) o analfabetismo como fator determinante para a exclusão social; 4) os sonhos e as experiências de vida como elementos de enfrentamento ao analfabetismo; 5) e o envelhecimento e sua relação com as novas tecnologias. Conclui-se que a exclusão social do idoso acontece de forma velada e que os conhecimentos de mundo adquiridos com o passar da idade não recebem reconhecimento por parte dos familiares e da comunidade em que este se encontra inserido.Palavras-chave: Idoso. Analfabetismo. Exclusão social."If I had studied I wouldn't have suffered so much": knowledge and memories of illiterate elderly peopleAbstractThe purpose with this study was to understand the factors that led people in the elderly people to have their schooling usurped and how their reading of the world contributes to preserving their knowledge and their memories with haughtiness. As a methodological resource, a qualitative approach of the descriptive type was used. The participants were three elderly participants of the Center for the Cohabitation of the Elderly in a municipality of Zona da Mata in the State of Rondônia. The information was collected through structured interviews and analyzed according to the Content Analysis guidelines. As a theoretical contribution, the present study was supported by authors such as Bosi (2014), Beauvoir (1970), Freire (2015) and others. From the reports it was possible to identify five thematic categories: 1) poverty as a social marker that determines illiteracy; 2) family exclusion with the dimension of socializing and relationship; 3) illiteracy as a determining factor for social exclusion; 4) dreams and life experiences as elements of coping with illiteracy; 5) and aging and its relationship with new technologies. It is concluded that the social exclusion of the elderly occurs in a veiled way and the knowledge of the world acquired with the passing of the age has not apprehended by the relatives and the community in which it is inserted.Keywords: Elderly. Illiteracy. Social exclusion. "Si yo tuviera estudiado, no sufriría tanto": conocimientos y memorias de ancianos analfabetosResumenEn el presente estudio tuvimos como objetivo comprender los factores que hicieron con que personas de la tercera edad tuvieran su escolaridad usurpada y como su lectura de mundo contribuyó para la preservación de sus conocimientos y sus memorias con la cabeza erguida. Como recurso metodológico, se utilizó un abordaje cualitativo del tipo descriptivo. Los participantes fueron tres ancianos integrantes del Centro de Convivencia del Anciano de un municipio de la región llamada Zona da Mata, del Estado de Rondônia. Las informaciones fueron recogidas por medio de entrevistas estructuradas y analizadas de acuerdo con las orientaciones del Análisis de Contenido. Con relación al aporte teórico, este estudio se apoyó en autores como Bosi (2014), Beauvoir (1970), Freire (2015), entre otros. A partir de los relatos fue posible identificar cinco categorías temáticas: 1) la pobreza como marcador social determinante del analfabetismo; 2) la exclusión familiar con la dimensión en la convivencia y en el relacionamiento; 3) el analfabetismo como factor determinante para la exclusión social; 4) sueños y experiencias de vida como elementos de enfrentamiento al analfabetismo; 5) y el envejecimiento y su relación con las nuevas tecnologías. Se concluye que la exclusión social del anciano sucede de manera velada y que los conocimientos de mundo adquiridos con el avance de la edad no son apreciados por la familia ni por la comunidad en que vive el anciano. Palabras clave: Anciano. Analfabetismo. Exclusión social.

Author's introductionThis review of recent feminist analyses and theorizing of labor markets uses a global lens to reveal the forces shaping gender inequality. The first section introduces the key words of globalization, gender and work organization. Next, I examine gender as embodied labor activity in globalized worksites, and the effects of globalization on gendered patterns of work and life. Putting gender at the center of globalization discourses highlights the historical and cultural variability of gender relations intersecting with class, race and nationality, and highlights the impact of restructuring on workers, organizations and institutions at the local, national and regional as well as transnational levels. Then I turn to look at labor market restructuring through commodification of care, outsourcing of household tasks and informalization of employment to show how these processes shape the complexity of relationships between and the interconnectedness of social inequalities transnationally and in global cities. Place matters when analyzing how service employment alters divisions of labor and how these labor market changes are gendered. Global restructuring not only poses new challenges but also creates new opportunities for mobilization around a more robust notion of equality. The final section explores the development of spaces for collective action and the rise of new women's and feminist movements (e.g., transnational networks, non‐governmental agencies). The study of globalization, gender and employment has broad importance for understanding not only the social causes but also the social consequences of the shift to a post‐industrial society.Author recommendsAcker, Joan 2004. 'Gender, Capitalism and Globalization.'Critical Sociology 30, 1: 17–41.Feminist scholarship both critiques gender‐blind globalization discourses and an older generation of women and development theories. By tracing the lineage of current feminist literature on globalization to women and development research, Joan Acker shows both the continuities and distance traveled from the previous terrain of debate. New feminist scholarship on globalization owes a debt to these important, albeit limited, studies of women at work in Latin America, Africa and Asia, but acknowledges the need to go beyond the category of women to analyze specific forms and cultural expressions of gendered power in relationship to class and other hierarchies. One of the major advances in feminist theory comes under the microscope of Acker's keen analysis when she excavates how gender is both embodied and embedded in the logic and structuring of globalizing capitalism. This extends the case she made in her earlier pioneering research on gender relations being embedded in the organization of major institutions. For the study of globalization, Acker posits that the gendered construction (and cultural coding) of capitalist production separated from human reproduction has resulted in subordination of women in both domains. Acker uncovers the historical legacy of a masculine‐form of dominance associated with production in the money economy that was exported to and embedded in colonialist installation of large‐scale institutions. By the late 20th Century large‐scale institutions promoted images and emotions that expressed economic and political power in terms of new articulations of hegemonic masculinity. As an article outlining debates on the nature of globalization and of gender, it serves as a good introduction to the topic.Chow, Esther Ngan‐Ling 2003. 'Gender Matters: Studying Globalization and Social Change in the 21st Century.'International Sociology 18, 3: 443–460.Chow's introduction to the special issue on 'Gender, Globalization and Social Change in the 21st Century' in International Sociology (2003) reviews the literature on gender and globalization and provides an excellent overview of 'gender matters.' Her definition of globalization captures salient features of the current era. This definition encompasses the economic, political cultural and social dimensions of globalization. Further, she offers a framework for studying the 'dialectics of globalization', as 'results of conflicting interaction between the global and local political economies and socio‐cultural conditions…' A dialectics of globalization is a fruitful approach for studying transformative possibilities. This article could serve as background reading or as part of an introductory section.Arlie Russell Hochschild, Arlie Russell. 2003. 'Love and Gold.' Pp. 15–30 in Global Women: Nannies, Maids and Sex Workers in the New Economy, edited by Barbara Ehrenreich and Arlie Russell Hochschild. Metropolitan Books.Hochschild's chapter in Global Women examines the transfer of traditional women's work to migrant women. Women in rich countries are turning over care work (nannies, maids, elder care) to female migrant workers who can be paid lower wages with few or no benefits and minimal legal protections. This global transfer of services associated with a wife's traditional role extracts a different kind of labor than in prior migrations based on agricultural and industrial production. Emotional, sexual as well as physical labor is extracted in this current phase of globalization; in particular, emotional labor and 'love is the new gold'. Women migrate not only to escape poverty, but also to escape patriarchy in their home countries by earning an independent income and by physical autonomy from patriarchal obligations and expectations. Many female migrants who leave poor countries can earn more money as nannies and maids in the First World than in occupations (nurses, teachers, clerical workers) if they remained in their own country. Thus, migration can be seen as having contradictory effects on women's well‐being and autonomy. This chapter can be used in a section dealing with the specific topic of globalization and care work or in a section introducing the topic of gendered labor activities.McDowell, Linda, Diane Perrons, Colette Fagan, Kath Ray and Kevin Ward. 2005. 'The Contradictions and Intersections of Class and Gender in a Global City: Placing Working Women's Lives on the Research Agenda.'Environment and Planning A 37, 441–461.This group of prominent social geographers from the UK collaborates to great effect in a welcome addition to the literature theorizing the complex articulations of gender and class in global cities. Their detailed research comparing three localities in Greater London is a corrective to the oft‐cited multi‐site study of global cities by Saskia Sassen. They find that Sassen underestimates gains and losses for both men and women in the 'new' economy. Place makes a difference when assessing the impact of women's increased rates of labor market participation on income inequality and patterns of childcare. The article outlines a new research agenda by 'placing' working women's lives at the center of analysis.Parrenas, Rhacel Salazar 2008. The Force of Domesticity: Filipina Migrants and Globalization. New York: New York University Press.Rhacel Salazar Parrenas brings together her influential research on Filipina migrants and extends her path‐breaking ethnographic analysis to include Filipina domestic workers in Rome and Los Angeles and entertainers in Tokyo. David Eng incisively captures the importance of Parrenas's analysis when he states, 'Extracted from home and homeland only to be reinserted into the domestic spaces of the global north, these servants of globalization exemplify an ever‐increasing international gendered division of labor, one compelling us to reexamine the neo‐liberal coupling of freedom and opportunity with mobility and migration'. The book is well suited to illuminate discussions of domesticity and migration, transnational migrant families, the impact of migration laws in 'home' and 'host' countries, and transnational movements among migrant women.Walby, Sylvia. 2009. Globalization and Inequalities: Complexity and Contested Modernities. London: Sage.This book introduces new theoretical concepts and tests alternative hypotheses to explain variation in trajectories of gender relations cross‐nationally. It synthesizes and reviews a vast literature, ranging from the social sciences to the natural sciences to construct a new approach to theorizing the development of gender regimes in comparative perspective. Sylvia Walby seeks to explain the different patterns of inequalities across a large number of countries. The analysis differentiates between neo‐liberal and social democratic varieties of political economy, and makes explicit the gender component of institutions and their consequences. The project builds on Walby's pioneering work on comparative gender regimes, and extends the research by operationalizing empirical indicators for a range of key concepts, and by analyzing links between a wide set of institutions (including economy, polity, education and violence) and how these are gendered in specific ways. As in the past, Walby is not afraid to tackle big questions and to offer new answers. Throughout the book, like in her previous body of research, Walby takes on the question of social inclusion/exclusion and critically interrogates concepts of democracy, political participation, equality and rights. Walby uses a comparative lens to examine the democratic 'deficit' in liberal and social democratic countries, and how migration restructures patterns of inequality and the consequent reconstitution of national and ethnic relations within countries. There is more to the book than abstract theoretical debates. Walby poses and assesses alternative political projects for achieving equality. The book is an original contribution that will likely influence sociology in general and theories of social change in particular.Online resourcesStatus of women in the world: United Nations Development Fund for Women (UNIFEM) http://www.unifem.orgUNIFEM was established at the United Nations in order to foster women's empowerment through innovative programs and strategies. Its mission statement summarizes UNIFEM's goals as follows: 'Placing the advancement of women's human rights at the center of all of its efforts, UNIFEM focuses on reducing feminized poverty, ending violence against women; reversing the spread of HIV/AIDS among women and girls; and achieving gender equality in democratic governance in times of peace as well as war'. The website includes information on global initiatives such as zero tolerance of violence against women, the impact of the economic crisis on women migrant workers, and strategizing for gender proportionate representation in Nigeria. Primary documents relevant to women's advancement appear on the website; these include the Convention on the Elimination of all Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW) and the UN Security Council Resolution 1325 on Women, Peace and Security. UNIFEM publishes monographs assessing the progress of women around the world. One notable example is the 2005 publication on Women, Work & Poverty by Martha Chen, Joann Vanek, Francie Lund, James Heintz with Renana Jhabvala and Christine Bonner. http://www.unifem.org/attachments/products/PoWW2005_eng.pdf Gender equity index http://www.socialwatch.org/en/avancesyRetrocesos/IEG_2008/tablas/valoresdelIEG2008.htm Social Watch produces an up‐to‐date gender equity index composed of three dimensions and indicators: empowerment (% of women in technical positions, % of women in management and government positions, % of women in parliaments, % of women in ministerial posts); economic activity (income gap, activity rate gap); and education (literacy rate gap, primary school enrollment rate gap, secondary school enrollment gap, and tertiary education enrollment gap). These separate indicators in addition to the gender equity index are arrayed by country. There are 157 countries, representing 94% of the world's population, in the sample. Mapping these indicators across countries presents a comparative picture of the absolute and relative standing of women and gender equity in the world.Focus QuestionsKey words: Globalization1. What is meant by globalization?

   a. To what extent is globalization new? Or is globalization another phase of a long historical process?
   b. Can we differentiate inter‐national (connections between) from the global (inter‐penetrations)?

Feminism and globalization

 How do feminist interventions challenge globalization theories (for example the presumed relationship between globalization and homogenization and individualization)?
 How do different feminisms frame and assess the conditions of globalization around the world?

Gender and globalization

 What role do women, and different women, play in the global economy?
 Are patriarchal arrangements changing as a result of greater economic integration at the world level?

Migration and mobilities

 What does Parrenas mean by partial citizenship?



 How does it relate to the case of Philippine migrant workers?
 What is the relationship between 'home' and 'host' nations?
 How important is a vehicle like the Tinig Filipino in forging 'imagined communities' and new realities?



 What is the mix of choice and compulsion in the different migrations mobilities of men and women?

Globalization and politics

 Are women subject to the same kinds of legal protections (and regulations) that evolved in earlier periods?
 Do new flexible production processes and flexible work arrangements undercut such legal protections?

Globalization and collective mobilization

 Does globalization open spaces for new women's movements, new solidarities, new subjectivities and new forms of organizing?

Sample syllabusCourse outline and reading assignments Conceptualizing the 'Global' and 'Globalization' Dicken, Peter, Jamie Peck and Adam Tickell. 1997. 'Unpacking the Global.' Pp. 158–166 in Geographies of Economies, edited by Roger Lee and Jane Willis. London: Arnold.Amin, Ash and Nigel Thrift. 1996. 'Holding Down the Global.' Pp. 257–260 in Globalization, Institutions, and Regional Development in Europe, edited by Ash Amin and Nigel Thrift. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Acker, Joan. 2004. 'Feminism, Gender and Globalization.'Critical Sociology 30: 17–42.Background Reading:Gottfried, Heidi. 2006. 'Feminist Theories of Work.' Pp. 121–154 in Social Theory at Work, edited by Marek Korczynski, Randy Hodson, Paul Edwards. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Peterson, V. Spike. 2008. 'Intersectional Analytics in Global Political Economy.' in UberKeruszungen, edited Cornelia Klinger and Gudrun‐Axeli Knapp. Munster: Wesfalisches Dmpfboot.Chow, Esther Ngan‐Ling. 2003. 'Gender Matters: Studying Globalization and Social change in the 21st Century.'International Sociology 18 (3): 443–460.Walby, Sylvia. 2009. Globalization and Inequalities: Complexity and Contested Modemities. London: Sage. Gender and Globalization Gottfried, Heidi. Forthcoming. 'Gender and Employment: A Global Lens on Feminist Analyses and Theorizing of Labor Markets.'Sociology CompassFernandez‐Kelly, Patricia and Diane Wolf. 2001. 'Dialogue on Globalization.'Signs 26: 1243–1249.Bergeron, Suzanne. 2001. 'Political Economy Discourses of Globalization and Feminist Politics.'Signs 26: 983–1006.Freeman, Carla. 2001. 'Is Local: Global as Feminine: Masculine? Rethinking the Gender of Globalization.'Signs 26:1007–1037. Theorizing Politics and Globalization Sassen, Saskia. 1996. 'Toward a Feminist Analytics of the Global Economy.'Indiana Journal of Global Legal Studies 4: 7–41.Parrenas, Rhacel Salazer. 2001. 'Transgressing the Nation‐State: The Partial Citizenship and 'Imagined (Global) Community' of Migrant Filipina Domestic Workers.'Signs 26:1129–1154.Bosniak, Linda. 2009. 'Citizenship, Noncitizenship, and the Transnationalization of Domestic Work.' Pp. 127–156 in Migrations and Mobilities: Citizenship, Borders, and Gender, edited by Seyla Benhabib and Judith Resnik. New York: New York University Press.Background Reading:Benhabib, Seyla and Judith Resnik. 2009. 'Introduction: Citizenship and Migration Theory Engendered.' Pp. 1–46 in Migrations and Mobilities: Citizenship, Borders, and Gender, edited by Seyla Benhabib and Judith Resnik. New York: New York University Press. Migrations, Mobilities and Care Hochschild, Arlie Russell. 2003. 'Love and Gold.' Pp. 15–30 in Global Women: Nannies, Maids and Sex Workers in the New Economy, edited by Barbara Ehrenreich and Arlie Russell Hochschild. Metropolitan Books.Hondagneu‐Sotelo, Pierrette. 2001. Domestica: Immigrant Workers Cleaning and Caring the Shadows of Affluence. Berkeley: University of California Press.Parrenas, Richard Salazar. 2008. The Force of Domesticity: Filipina Migrants and Globalization. New York: New York University Press.Pyle, Jean 2006. 'Globalizations, Transnational Migration, and Gendered Care Work.'Globalizations 3(3): 283–295.Qayum, Seemin and Raka Ray. 2003. 'Grappling with Modernity: India's Respectable Classes and the Culture of Domestic Servitude.'Ethnography 4: 520–555. Restructuring and Gender Inequality in Global Cities McDowell, Linda, Diane Perrons, Colette Fagan, Kath Ray and Kevin Ward. 2005. 'The Contradictions and Intersections of Class and Gender in a Global City: Placing Working Women's Lives on the Research Agenda.'Environment and Planning A 37: 441–461.McDowell, Linda. 1997. 'A Tale of Two Cities? Embedded Organizations and Embodied Workers in the City of London.' Pp. 118–129 in Geographies of Economies, edited by Roger Lee and Jane Willis. London: Arnold.Bruegel, Irene. 1999. 'Globalization, Feminization and Pay Inequalities in London and the UK.' Pp. 73–93 in Women, Work and Inequality, edited by Jeanne Gregory, Rosemary Sales and Ariane Hegewisch. New York: St. Martin's Press. Embodiment and Restructuring Halford, Susan and Mike Savage. 1997. 'Rethinking Restructuring: Embodiment, Agency and Identity in Organizational Change.' Pp. 108–117 in Geographies of Economies, edited by Roger Lee and Jane Willis. London: Arnold.Gottfried, Heidi. 2003 'Temp(t)ing Bodies: Shaping Bodies at Work in Japan.'Sociology 37: 257–276. Gender in the Global Economy: Post‐Socialist and Emerging Economies Salzinger, Leslie. 2004. 'Trope Chasing: Engendering Global Labor Markets.'Critical Sociology 30: 43–62.Kathryn Ward, Fahmida Rahman, AKM Saiful Islam, Rifat Akhter and Nashid Kama. 2004. 'The Nari Jibon Project: Effects on Global Structuring on University Women's Work and Empowerment In Bangladesh.'Critical Sociology 30: 63–102Otis, Eileen. 2007. 'Virtual Personalism in Beijing: Learning Deference and Femininity at a Global Luxury Hotel. Pp. 101–123 in Working in China: Ethnographies of Labor and Workplace Transformation, edited by Ching Kwan Lee. Routledge.Background Reading:Ferguson and Monique Mironesco (eds.). 2008. Gender and Globalization in Asia and the Pactific: Method, Practice, Theory. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. Globalization and Policy Developments Lenz, Ilse. 2004. 'Globalization, Gender and Work: Perspectives on Global Regulation.' Pp. 29–52 in Equity in the Workplace: Gendering Workplace Policy Analysis, edited by Heidi Gottfried and Laura Reese. Lexington Press.Woodward, Alison. 2004. 'European Gender Mainstreaming: Promises and Pitfalls of Transformative Policy.' Pp. 77–100 in Equity in the Workplace: Gendering Workplace Policy Analysis, edited by Heidi Gottfried and Laura Reese, Lexington Press.Fraser, Nancy. 2007. 'Reframing Justice in a Globalizing World.' in Global Inequality, edited by David Held and Ayse Kaya. Polity. Gender and the New Economy Walby, Sylvia, Heidi Gottfried, Karin Gottschall and Mari Osawa. 2006. Gendering and the Knowledge Economy: Comparative Perspectives, Palgrave, See chapters by Sylvia Walby, Mari Osawa, and Diane Perrons.Ng, Cecelia. 2004. 'Globalization and Regulation: The New Economy, Gender and Labor Regimes.'Critical Sociology 30: 103–108. Globalization and Transnational Organizing Ferree, Myra Marx. 2006. 'Globalization and Feminism: Opportunities and Obstacles for Activism in the Global Area.' Pp. 3–23 in Global Feminism: Transnational Women's Activism, Organizing, and Human Rights, edited by Myra Marx Ferree and Aili Mari Tripp. New York: New York University Press.Yuval‐Davis, Nira. 2006. 'Human/Women's Rights and Feminist Transversal Politics.' Pp. 275–295 in Global Feminism: Transnational Women's Activism, Organizing, and Human Rights, Myra Marx Ferree and Aili Mari Tripp. New York: New York University Press.Mohanty, Chandra Talpade. 2006. "Under Western Eyes" Revisited: Feminist Solidarity Through Anti‐Capitalist Struggles.' Pp. 17–42 in Feminism without Borders: Decolonizing Theory, Practicing Solidarity, edited by Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press.

This guide accompanies the following article: Mark Frezzo, 'Sociology and Human Rights in the Post Development Era', Sociology Compass 5/3 (2011): 203–214, 10.1111/j.1751‐9020.2011.00361.x.Author's introductionThe founding of the Thematic Group on Human Rights and Global Justice in the International Sociological Association in 2006 and the Section on the Sociology of Human Rights in the American Sociological Association in 2008 testify to the emergence of the sociology of human rights as a distinct field of research and teaching. In a nutshell, the field involves the analysis of (a) the social conditions under which human rights treaties and laws are drafted, debated, implemented, and enforced, and (b) the manner in which human rights treaties and laws constrain and/or enable nation‐states, societies, communities, and individuals. This entails explaining the social impact of a series of United Nations documents: the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948), which created a framework for the implementation of human rights across the world; the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (1966), which outlined first‐generation rights to liberty and security of the person; and the International Covenant on Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights (1966), which outlined second‐generation rights to equality and third‐generation rights to solidarity. In the postwar period, these documents became important reference points not only for the UN and its member nations, but also for national liberation movements in the global South. More recently, these documents have guided the undertakings of non‐governmental organizations (including Amnesty International and Human Rights Watch) and social movement organizations in responding to poverty, inequality, exclusion, and environmental degradation. In sum, the sociology of human rights draws on such fields as the sociology of law, development sociology, political economy, environmental sociology, organizational sociology, and social movement research in explaining 'rights effects'.Author recommendsWhile Micheline Ishay's The History of Human Rights: From Ancient Times to the Globalization Era (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 2008) offers the authoritative account of the origins and evolution of human rights doctrine, Judith Blau and Alberto Moncada's Human Rights: A Primer (Boulder, CO: Paradigm Publishers, 2009) serves as an excellent introduction to cutting‐edge thinking on economic, social, cultural, and environmental rights in the present day.Jackie Smith's Social Movements for Global Democracy (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2007) and Clifford Bob's edited volume, The International Struggle for Human Rights (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2008) explain how popular movements in the age globalization have reinterpreted old rights, invented new rights, and, in the process, forged transnational coalitions with non‐governmental organizations and, in some cases, with UN agencies.Roland Burke's Decolonization and the Evolution of International Human Rights (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2010) offers great insights into the role of the global South – or what used to be known as the 'Third World'– in reinterpreting and expanding the human rights canon.Online materialsIn analyzing the reinterpretation of the human rights canon, sociologists examine a number of primary sources from the UN: the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (http://www.un.org/en/documents/udhr/index.shtml), the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (http://www2.ohchr.org/english/law/ccpr.htm), and the International Covenant on Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights (http://www2.ohchr.org/english/law/cescr.htm). More recently, the World Social Forum's Charter of Principles (http://www.forumsocialmundial.org.br/main.php?id_menu=4&cd_language=2) has become an important touchstone for social movement organizations challenging neoliberalism.In the last few years, scholars have made substantial progress in institutionalizing the social scientific study of human rights. This mission statements of the Thematic Group on Human Rights and Global Justice in the International Sociological Association (http://www.isa‐sociology.org/tg03.htm) and the Section on the Sociology of Human Rights in the American Sociological Association (http://www.asanet.org/sections/humanrights.cfm) capture the essence of the sociology of human rights. In 2009, the American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS), which represents all of the social and natural science disciplines in the US, launched its Science and Human Rights Program (http://shr.aaas.org/) to promote human rights through scientific discovery. The program's website contains a wealth of information on AAAS activities in four areas: Engaging Scientists (http://shr.aaas.org/Programs/program_engaging.htm), Applying Science (http://shr.aaas.org/Programs/program_applying.htm), Conduct of Science (http://shr.aaas.org/Programs/program_conduct.htm), and Science as a Human Right (http://shr.aaas.org/Programs/program_article15.htm).Sample syllabus: sociology of human rightsCourse descriptionIn recent years, sociologists have joined legal scholars, political scientists, and philosophers in debating the nature and scope of human rights. In keeping with their training, sociologists explore the social conditions under which human rights legislation is drafted, interpreted, enforced, and violated. In addition, sociologists examine how the conferral of rights affects the conduct of societies, communities, and individuals. In the process of explaining how rights—understood as claims made on governments and other institutions—'circulate' among different social actors, this course examines a series of questions. How has the concept of human rights evolved from the Enlightenment to the present day? How have inter‐governmental organizations (IGOs), non‐governmental organizations (NGOs), and social movement organizations (SMOs) promoted human rights? What is the connection between human rights and democracy? What are the prospects for a rights regime on a global scale?Course objectivesThis course introduces students to the sociology of human rights – a growing field in academia. In becoming conversant in the scholarly debates on human rights, students will acquire a technical vocabulary: first‐generation rights (pertaining to liberty); second‐generation rights (pertaining to equality); and third‐generation rights (pertaining to solidarity). In addition, students will learn to apply the tools of sociology to the following phenomena:

Historical conflicts over human rights.
Networks of IGOs, NGOs, and movements pushing for new rights.
Advocacy of human rights and processes of democratization.
Proposals for a human rights regime on a global scale.

Course readings

Donnelly, Jack (2003). Universal Human Rights in Theory and Practice.
Ishay, Micheline (2004). The History of Human Rights: From Ancient Times to the Globalization Era.

Course schedule Week 1: What is the sociology of human rights?

Discussion of Syllabus and Objectives.
Introduction to the Study of Human Rights.

Week 2: Human rights in the enlightenment and the industrial revolution

Discussion of Reading: Ishay, 1–14 and 63–116, 117–72.

Week 3: Human rights in the 20th century

Discussion of Reading: Ishay, 173–244.

Week 4: Globalization, human rights, and social movements

Discussion of Reading: Ishay, 245–314.

Week 5: Human rights in the 21st century

Discussion of Reading: Ishay, 315–55.

Week 6: Defining rights

Discussion of Reading: Donnelly, 7–37.

Week 7: Group rights

Discussion of Reading: Donnelly, 89–106 and 204–41.

Week 8: Global human rights regime?

Discussion of Reading: Donnelly, 127–54.

Weeks 9 and 10: Implementing human rights in the 'Real World'

Class Project on human rights, development, and global governance.

Focus questions

Explain the three generations of human rights. Be sure to cover the following themes: liberty, equality, and solidarity; the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948), the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (1966), and the International Covenant on Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights (1966).
Explain the debate on universalism and relativism. Why is the debate important?
Explain Ishay's argument about the role of social movements in promoting human rights.
In light of Ishay's book, what it your assessment of the prospects for a more robust and enforceable human rights framework? How would you go about deepening human rights on a global scale?
How does Donnelly's theoretical analysis of human rights relate to Ishay's historical analysis of human rights? To what extent are they complementary?
How does Donnelly handle the debate on universalism and relativism?
How does Donnelly explain group rights? How does he handle the problem of self‐determination?
In your view, how has Donnelly contributed to the sociology of human rights? In light of Donnelly's work, what are your expectations and hopes for the sociology of human rights?

Contrastando los crecientes niveles de interés en espacios e imágenes más allá del campo de la geografía, este artículo (re-) introduce un trabajo previo sobre la semiótica de los mapas emprendidos por geógrafos en la década de los 60. Se destacan en este trabajo las limitaciones en los datos, el propósito y el contexto cultural en las que el usuario interpreta los códigos y convenciones de un mapa, que siguen siendo relevantes para la interpretación de mapas – nuevos y viejos – cuarenta años después. Aprovechando las aportaciones de la geografía a la semiótica de los mapas, el artículo procede a examinar el concepto de las divisiones sociales urbanas como se representa en las imágenes de los mapas. Utilizando una pequeña cantidad de imágenes de mapas, incluyendo dos de los mapas más ampliamente conocidos de la división social urbana en Europa y América del Norte, se analiza el papel del contexto, los datos y el propósito en la generación e interpretación de mapas. Al presentar los ejemplos cronológicamente, el artículo muestra que si bien los avances en la recolección y manejo de datos han permitido que los investigadores combinen diversas variables sociales en mapas de la división social, e interactúen con imágenes de mapas, el trabajo de geógrafos sobre la semiótica de los mapas no es menos relevante hoy en día que cuando fue propuesto por primera vez hace cuarenta años.