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Problematizar las nociones de pedagogía crítica y advertir sus alcances y limitaciones teóricas y prácticas es el cometido de este artículo. Se plantea la necesidad de reflexionar sobre los alcances de la actividad pedagógica y su posible vínculo con los proyectos liberadores y de discutir la pertinencia de una teoría pedagógica descolonizante y liberadora. Si el objeto de esta pedagogía es la transformación social desde la actividad pedagógica, subvertir el statu quo no puede ser obra de una sola actividad ni un tipo ideal de sujeto: es ingenuo pensar que desde el quehacer pedagógico crítico se lograrán los cambios radicales en el sistema mundo. El quehacer científico ha transitado de la disciplinariedad a la interdisciplinariedad, pero el diálogo interdisciplinario no ha logrado enfrentar la complejidad de la realidad, por ello la perspectiva transdisciplinaria ha ganado terreno para plantear respuestas complejas a problemas complejos. En ese tránsito se inscribe la pedagogía crítica, en un posicionamiento epistemológico ubicado en una concepción compleja y contradictoria del objeto de estudio; reconoce que la realidad educativa forma parte de una realidad más amplia, donde las relaciones entre ambas realidades evidencian su interdependencia mientras que el ejercicio pedagógico crítico pretende provocar cambios sociales radicales. Toma distancia de las pedagogías dominantes y asume un posicionamiento político hacia los desfavorecidos del sistema capitalista. La crítica educativa es una crítica social, una praxis transformadora mediante procesos de reflexión y prácticas liberadoras. Es posible y deseable una pedagogía crítica que contribuya con dos capacidades en peligro de extinción: la de asombro y la de transformación social.

Taxation is accepted as a fact of modern life, despite recurring political conflict over the nature and direction of fiscal policies. Most financiers regard obligations issued by the state as a safe investment option. Neither taxation nor state obligations were taken for granted during much of the history of public finance, however, at least not before the early 1800s. The 'tax state' developed in fits and starts, driven by the exigencies of warfare, which provided the main rationale for raising state income. Although wartime fiscal innovations eventually facilitated the rise of an efficient military state, the options available for implementing such improvements and preferences for specific fiscal or financial instruments varied greatly across early modern states. Focusing on the 'long' eighteenth century, this introduction presents a framework for assessing these differences and introduces the other articles in this special issue.

À la mi-2006 on voit se dessiner en Espagne, sous l'impulsion du Gouvernement national, une politique industrielle de soutien aux groupements d'entreprises. Son objectif est de promouvoir une dynamique d'innovation à caractère territorial et sectoriel. Cet article présente une description et une analyse du programme visant à stimuler la création de ces groupements d'entreprises. Dans une deuxième partie, et de façon plus détaillée, il analyse les modèles de gouvernance qui ont été établis. ; In the mid-2006 the Spanish government designed and implemented an industrial policy aimed to support the development of innovative clusters. The objective was to promote an innovative dynamics at the territorial and sectorial scales. In this paper, we present a description and analysis of the program dedicated to the encouragement and the creation of these groups. In a second part, we analyze the governance models of these clusters.

On the last decades, European countries have increased their focus on local production systems as a matter of industrial policy measures. Based on the works related to industrial districts of Becatini (1989), Brusco (1990), Ybarra (1991 and 1996) and Dei Ottati (1994), or the later contributions of Porter (1998a) about productive clusters, Governments have taken measures to stimulate the creation and strengthening of clusters. However, the progressive extension of cluster policies has highlighted the constraints of rationality on which it is based and the criteria used to evaluate their impact and effectiveness. Consequently, the traditional arguments based on the neoclassical concept of efficiency and the advantages of external economies have given way to a new paradigm that gives a central role to organizational learning, collective decision-making and networks as governance structure. The new approach to the analysis of production networks exceeds the territorial or sectorial boundaries to highlight the dynamic and complex nature of the relationships established between actors in the cluster. The approach of governance, as a starting point for the analysis of production networks, opens a new perspective in the assessment of the potential impact of cluster development and the effectiveness of measures aimed to their promotion. Based on the theoretical premises above mentioned, this paper aims to the analysis and valuation of the aid scheme of Innovative Business Partnerships (AEI) sponsored by the Spanish government. This study is based both on traditional analysis of the implementation and impact indicators, as in the analysis of the AEI program's ability to promote the adoption of models of governance and collective action to enhance the competitive capabilities of the cluster.

[SPA] Las migraciones pueden ser: de personas y culturas, de mercancías, de datos, de dinero, etc. Todo ello no ha hecho más que aumentar la complejidad, en un mundo que cultural y paradójicamente huye de la uniformidad. Sea complejo aquello que no es posible abordar, en exclusiva, desde un solo ámbito. Con ello aumenta el incremento de posibilidades en cada sistema y esfera social, multiplicándose la complejidad al tiempo que aumenta la autonomía de cada uno de esos ámbitos. Si la política, la arquitectura y el urbanismo pretenden "entrometerse", han de hacerlo acudiendo a procedimientos no jerárquicos, sino heterónomos, con inéditos sistemas de negociación. Las nuevas sociedades de "la modernidad avanzada" son sistemas carentes de vértice jerárquico. Y cada ámbito funcional reduce el campo de los acontecimientos relevantes de acuerdo con la lógica de su propia función. Cada uno de ellos tiende a incluir toda la sociedad en su propio ámbito, de modo que la idea de unidad, más que desaparecer, se multiplica en un elenco de unidades de variada procedencia. Un sistema parcial no es representante de la totalidad (economía, salud, tecnología, moral, comunicación, arte, arquitectura, urbanismo, etc.). Cada una de estas concepciones toma la parte por el todo y olvida la interdependencia fundamental a la que están sometidos todos los sistemas funcionales. Valorar la dinámica centrífuga de los sistemas diferenciados y jerárquicos de la primera modernidad, es el debate de la nueva política, cultura y arquitectura de las sociedades complejas. [ENG] Migrations can be: people and cultures, goods, data, money, etc. All of these have done no more than increase complexity, in a world which paradoxically and culturally escapes from uniformity. Be complex that which cannot be addressed, exclusively from a single field. It increases the growth of possibilities in each system and the social sphere, to multiply the complexity at the time which increases the autonomy of each of these areas. If politics, architecture and urban planning are intended to "meddle", they must do so attending procedures not hierarchical, but self-instituting, with new trading systems. New "Advanced modernity" societies are lacking systems of hierarchical vertex. And each functional area reduces the field of relevant events according to the logic of its own function. Each of them tends to include all the society in their own field, so the idea of unity, rather than disappear, it multiplies in a cast of varied provenance units. A partial system is not representative of the whole (economics, health, technology, morale, communication, art, architecture, urban planning, etc.). Each of these conceptions takes the part for the whole, and forgets the fundamental interdependence to which all functional systems are subjected. Counterbalancing the centrifugal dynamics of differentiated and hierarchical systems of first modernity is the debate on the new policy, culture and architecture of complex societies.

[SPA] La ciudad nos explica. Sobre ella proyectamos nuestras convicciones o la falta de ellas, anhelos, cosmovisiones, juicios y prejuicios. Y sin embargo, las ciudades se convierten en esa condición cultural previa de la que no parece posible desembarazarse acabando por condicionar nuestras convicciones o la falta de ellas, nuestros anhelos, etc. Ciertamente son un sustrato cultural ineludible e "invisible". Nuestra contemporaneidad ha generado un tipo de urbe que trascendiendo lo material ha dado lugar a relaciones "des-corporalizadas" y complejas. La calle ha muerto, oímos desde frentes diversos. El espacio público ha superado la vieja geometría física que ya no sirve para registrar los cambios y los flujos que caracterizan nuestra época. Los límites quedaron atrás. Su cartografía no es posible convencionalmente. Frente a la complejidad, pierden vigor las actuaciones políticas y administrativas jerárquicas y simples, propias de tiempos fuertes. No proponemos el abandono de la política y la ciudad, sino el modo de hacer política y ciudad. Se sugiere una gestión de la complejidad y el desorden que coordine lo complejo, no desde la jerarquía sino desde una "super-visión" policontextual y policéntrica. [ENG] The city explains. On it we project our convictions or lack of them, longings, worldviews, judgments and prejudices. And however, the cities become that cultural precondition of which does not seem possible to rid ending with condition our convictions or the lack of them, our longings, etc. They certainly are an inescapable and "invisible" cultural substrate. Our contemporary world has generated a type of city that transcending the material has given rise to without bodies and complex relationships. The street has died, we heard from various fronts. The public space has exceeded the old physical geometry that no longer serves to register changes and flows that characterize our era. The limits were left behind. Your mapping cannot be conventionally. Facing the complexity, political and administrative actions hierarchical and simple, own strong stroke lose force. We not propose abandoning politics and the city, but the way of doing politics and city. Suggested management of complexity and clutter that coordinates complex, not from the hierarchy but from a "super-vision" policontextual and polycentric. ; [ENG] The city explains. On it we project our convictions or lack of them, longings, worldviews, judgments and prejudices. And however, the cities become that cultural precondition of which does not seem possible to rid ending with condition our convictions or the lack of them, our longings, etc. They certainly are an inescapable and "invisible" cultural substrate. Our contemporary world has generated a type of city that transcending the material has given rise to without bodies and complex relationships. The street has died, we heard from various fronts. The public space has exceeded the old physical geometry that no longer serves to register changes and flows that characterize our era. The limits were left behind. Your mapping cannot be conventionally. Facing the complexity, political and administrative actions hierarchical and simple, own strong stroke lose force. We not propose abandoning politics and the city, but the way of doing politics and city. Suggested management of complexity and clutter that coordinates complex, not from the hierarchy but from a "super-vision" policontextual and polycentric.

In recent years, there has been an increasing amount of research analyzing open government initiatives that enable access to the information held by public bodies, promoting accountability and the fight against corruption. As there are few studies on intermediate governments to date, this research focuses on this level of government in Spain, one of the most decentralized countries in the world. The autonomous communities in Spain manage over 35% of consolidated public spending and are responsible for providing most social services, including health, education, and social services. To achieve this goal, the perceptions of the seventeen heads of open government in Spain's autonomous communities were collected through a questionnaire. This approach fills a research gap as individuals outside of public administration have made the previous assessments. By allowing for a comparison with the conclusions reached by prior research, this study contributes to the creation of new knowledge. The study's results are consistent with previous research and suggest that the open government in Spain is positively regarded, not falling below the European or global averages, and has a promising future despite significant obstacles, such as a resistance to change. Transparency is the most developed aspect of open government, while citizen collaboration ranks last. The autonomous communities of the Basque Country, Aragon, Castile Leon, and Catalonia have been identified as the most advanced in terms of open government. The analysis did not reveal any gender-based differences in opinion. Still, it did show variations based on age, the size of the autonomous community, or membership to the most developed group. Therefore, it is evident that promoting open government in the autonomous communities of Spain should continue.

Team-based work (TBW) plays a crucial role in the success and quality of public services. In the context of the Spanish public sector, our study evaluates if a low level of hierarchical distance (HD) in public organizations condition the public employees' commitment (EC) as well as TBW, assessed in terms of participation and consensus among team members. Simultaneously, we evaluated to what extent EC help to enhance TBW. Employing a sample of 213 government organizations from the south of Spain through a model of structural equations, we were able to answer the above questions. Our results revealed that team-based work functions more successfully within public organizations where there exists little verticality in their structures, norms, values and rules – in simplest terms, where there is minimal organizational HD. Such results also suggest that although regulations exist in the Spanish public sector, should public organizations attempt to be less vertical and more horizontal, they would perhaps have public servants that were more committed to their organizations. As a result, servants view the organization as their own and remain loyal. Finally, from an academic perspective, this study could be one of few to research and evaluate the hierarchical role and employees' commitment to the functioning of public employees based on participation and consensus in their work teams.

El presente artículo expone una investigación referida a la producción capitalista del espacio en Chile en el contexto del actual proceso de globalización. El planteamiento central es que el Estado chileno y su territorialidad han actuado, con notoriedad a partir de la década de los setenta, bajo una lógica de articulación y soporte en relación a una geografía del capital que se moviliza a nivel mundial. Este proceder ha llevado al surgimiento de lo que hemos denominado las "fronteras del desarrollo", cuya característica principal es la reconfiguración de la clásica territorialidad del Estado-nación al configurar espacios tanto nacionales como globales. Estas fronteras del desarrollo representan, como plantea el texto, un ícono clave en la producción capitalista del espacio en Chile al ser territorios que marcan zonas de contacto y apertura global más que clausura nacional.

The detrimental effects traditionally assigned to warfare in the development of pre-industrial economies have obscured the prominent role that military entrepreneurs played in economic development in this period. Historiography minimises the extent to which war and the concomitant strengthening of the central state provided a whole new range of opportunities for capital investment, a tendency that has been strengthened by the paradigm of Redlich's 'decline of the soldier-entrepreneur' and the technological determinism of the debate on the Military Revolution among others. The aim of this introduction is to look into the background of this relative lack of interest and to reaffirm the mutual dependence of eighteenth-century state-formation and the business of war.

Taxation is accepted as a fact of modern life, despite recurring political conflict over the nature and direction of fiscal policies. Most financiers regard obligations issued by the state as a safe investment option. Neither taxation nor state obligations were taken for granted during much of the history of public finance, however, at least not before the early 1800s. The 'tax state' developed in fits and starts, driven by the exigencies of warfare, which provided the main rationale for raising state income. Although wartime fiscal innovations eventually facilitated the rise of an efficient military state, the options available for implementing such improvements and preferences for specific fiscal or financial instruments varied greatly across early modern states. Focusing on the 'long' eighteenth century, this introduction presents a framework for assessing these differences and introduces the other articles in this special issue.