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At the dawn of the 21st century, more and more people realize that 'economics' and 'politics' are intimately related. And yet, these two aspects of social existence are usually studied as separate 'disciplines,' each with its own categories, language and theories. Can this departmentalization be overcome? Should it? And if so, how? The seminar deals with these questions by critically examining major themes of political economy. Topics are divided into two major categories: elements and aggregates. In the first part, the seminar examines the origins and implications of concepts such as supply and demand, equilibrium, utility and productivity, market organization, and the role of power. Part two, focusing on aggregates, covers the issues of national accounting, theories of prosperity and crisis, money and finance, economic policy, stagflation, welfare/warfare, and the global formations of trade, capital flows and currency regimes. Throughout the seminar, the emphasis is not only on the 'how,' but also on the 'why.' Where have the concepts and theories come from? Why have they risen to prominence and what brought them down? Who benefited from them and who paid the price? Do they help us understand the world, or do they serve to conceal it? In these explorations, special emphasis is put on methodology, as well as the importance of empirical/historical analysis.

What is 'capitalism' and how is it different from other social orders? How did capitalism develop? How does it function at different levels? What theories are used to explain capitalism, and how is it justified and critiqued by different ideologies? What are the roles of power, cooperation and incessant change in capital-ism? This course examines such questions from the viewpoint of political economy. It begins by critically analyzing the basic concepts of surplus and class, supply and demand, prices and profit, investment and capital accumulation. Using these basic concepts, the course proceeds to explore issues such as the nature of the corporation and business organization, the process of capitalist production, the role of inequality, the macro analysis of aggregate processes, government policies and the various 'anomalies' of political economy, like stagflation and accumulation-through-crisis.

At the dawn of the 21st century, more and more people realize that 'economics' and 'politics' are intimately related. And yet, these two aspects of social existence are usually studied as separate 'disciplines,' each with its own categories, language and theories. Can this departmentalization be overcome? Should it? And if so, how? The seminar deals with these questions by critically examining major themes of political economy. Topics are divided into two major categories: elements and aggregates. In the first part, the seminar examines the origins and implications of concepts such as supply and demand, equilibrium, utility and productivity, market organization, and the role of power. Part two, focusing on aggregates, covers the issues of national accounting, theories of prosperity and crisis, money and finance, economic policy, stagflation, welfare/warfare, and the global formations of trade, capital flows and currency regimes. Throughout the seminar, the emphasis is not only on the 'how,' but also on the 'why.' Where have the concepts and theories come from? Why have they risen to prominence and what brought them down? Who benefited from them and who paid the price? Do they help us understand the world, or do they serve to conceal it? In these explorations, special emphasis is put on methodology, as well as the importance of empirical/historical analysis.

INTRODUCTION 1 -- 1 THE ROLE OF COURTS IN THE PROTECTION OF SOCIO-ECONOMIC RIGHTS: INTERNATIONAL AND DOMESTIC PERSPECTIVES -- I. The Indivisibility of Human Rights -- A. Understanding Socio-economic Rights as Human Rights -- B. Two Faces of Liberty: Conflicting Ideologies of Socio-economic and Civil and Political Rights -- C. Socio-economic Rights, Resources and the Negative-Positive Dichotomy -- D. A Unified Approach to Human Rights: To 'Respect, Protect and Promote' the Rights -- E. The Normative Content of Socio-economic Rights: Programmatic Aspirations and the 'Minimum Core' -- II. The Protection of Socio-economic Rights in Domestic Courts -- A. Issues of Justiciability: Achieving Social Justice in the Round? -- i. Institutional Competencies -- ii. Welfare Politics, Courts and Conflicting Theories of Constitutional Review -- B. The Protection of Socio-economic Rights through the Traditional Canon of Civil and Political Rights -- C. The Dedicated Pursuit of Social Justice: The South African Model -- D. The Enforcement of Socio-economic Rights: Cooperative Dialogue in the South African Constitutional Court? -- III. Conclusion -- 2 THE REGIONAL PROTECTION OF SOCIO-ECONOMIC RIGHTS: EUROPE -- I. Introduction -- II. The European Convention on Human Rights (ECHR) 1950 -- A. Background and Context: The Negative-Positive Dichotomy Revisited -- B. Incremental Development of Positive Obligations in ECHR Rights -- C. Methodological Issues: Grafting a Jurisprudence of Positive Obligations onto the ECHR Rights -- D. Reconciling the Development of Positive Obligations with the Negative Thrust of the ECHR -- E. Theoretical Justifications for Positive Obligations and the Problem of Resources -- III. The Protection of Socio-economic Rights in the ECHR -- A. Developing Core Values in the ECHR Rights -- B. Article 2: A Right to Health Treatment? -- C. Article 3: Respect for Human Dignity -- D. Article 8: Protecting Physical and Psychological Integrity -- E. Article 14: The Equal Distribution of Public Goods? -- F. Article 6: Due Process in Public Law Challenges -- IV. The Protection of Socio-economic Rights in EC -- EU Law -- A. The Development of a Doctrine of Fundamental Rights in EC -- EU Law -- B. The Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union -- C. The European Court of Justice (ECJ): Social Solidarity and Access to Public Services in Member States -- i. Undue Delay -- ii. Article 49 EC Treaty -- V. Conclusion -- 3 COURTS, THE UK CONSTITUTION AND THE HUMAN RIGHTS ACT 1998 -- I. Introduction -- II. Reading and Giving Effect to ECHR Rights in UK Courts -- A. The Background and Political Context of the Human Rights Act (HRA) 1998 -- B. The Purpose and Structure of the HRA -- C. General Principles of Constitutional Interpretation in the United Kingdom -- D. The Interpretation of Section 3 HRA -- E. Deference: The Boundaries of Interpretative Possibility under Section 3 HRA -- F. Section 2 HRA and the Scope of ECHR Rights: Taking Account of Strasbourg Jurisprudence -- i. Stare Decisis -- G. Section 6 HRA: The Duty of Public Authorities to Act Compatibly with the ECHR Rights -- I. Human Rights or Economic Liberalism: Contested Interpretations of Section 6(3)(b) HRA -- III. Conclusion -- 4 JUDICIAL REVIEW: DEFERENCE, RESOURCES AND THE HUMAN RIGHTS ACT -- I. Introduction -- II. The Constitutional Foundations of Judicial Review -- A. Ultra Vires or Rights? -- B. The Reception of Human Rights in English Law prior to the HRA -- C. Resistance to Human Rights in English Administrative Law -- D. Judicial Deference, Resources and the Ultra Vires Paradigm of Review -- III. Public Law, Deference and the Human Rights Act -- A. The Limits of Judicial Intervention under Section 6 HRA -- i. Context and Proportionality: A Bright-line Division in Public Law? -- B. Justification, Transparency and Reasons to Defer -- C. Deference Embedded: The Artificial Division between Policy and Law -- D. Deference in Context: Landlord and Tenant Repossession Cases -- E. Deference, the Subject Matter of Disputes and the Nature of the Rights -- F. Democracy, Human Rights Values and the 'Unity of Public Law' -- IV. Conclusion -- 5 FROM NEED TO 'CHOICE' IN PUBLIC SERVICES: THE BOUNDARIES OF JUDICIAL INTERVENTION IN PRIORITISATION DISPUTES -- I. Introduction -- A. From Need to Choice in NHS and Public Authority Services: The Post-welfare Landscape of the United Kingdom -- II. NHS Rationing: The Role of Courts in Disputes over Access to Medical Services -- A. The Limits of Judicial Intervention in Health Care Rationing: R v Cambridge Health Authority, ex parte B (Re B) -- B. NHS Policies under Scrutiny: Legitimate Interventions in Public Administrative Law -- i. Legitimate Expectation: The Meeting of Individual Needs -- ii. Irrational Allocation Policies: Distinguishing Re B -- C. Choice, Socio-economic Entitlements and EU Law: Challenging the Status Quo -- III. Local Authority Resource Allocation Disputes -- IV. Interpreting Local Authority Statutory Duties Post-HRA -- A. Section 17 Children Act 1989: Accommodating Children and their

International audience ; The suburban way of life is tending towards a rejection of tangible confrontation with otherness so that other people – should they be different – become politically invisible. This is at any rate what the critical literature surmises about the growing desire of suburbanites to live amongst their own and sometimes even behind the safe and reassuring walls of gated communities. However appealing this analysis might be, it seems nonetheless rather partial. Suburban populations are increasingly mobile and their everyday horizon is less and less reduced to the immediate perimeter of the neighbourhood. Indeed, how can one interpret the social specialization of residential areas as a sign of "enclavism" when all the statistics available indicate that mobility has become a constitutive factor of people's way of life and the neighbourhood has all but lost its existential weight? Based on exploratory work, this paper aims to deconstruct the criticism articulated around the opposition of "suburbanism" and "urbanism" by emphasising the effects of the various forms of mobility and showing that they complement the proliferation of homogeneous neighbourhoods. In order to achieve this goal, the paper analyses the culture of people living at the periphery of two large French cities (Paris and Lyon). The arguments given are based both on the existing literature and on research the author carried out in France (Charmes, 2005). As a result of the analysis conducted, it becomes apparent that the increase in mobilities and the social homogenisation of neighbourhoods can be linked in other ways than the one suggested by the critical literature. On the one hand, contemporary residential areas are not as neutral and sterile as they appear to be. Relationships between neighbours and interactions with people from the surroundings constitute at least an embryonic experience of otherness. Residential areas can therefore be conceived as "transition spaces" between the protected space of the home and the relatively unknown spaces of the large metropolis. On the other hand, the paper defends the hypothesis that mobilities tend to reinforce the need for stability and control of one's immediate space. Mobilities have lead city dwellers out of the reassuring cocoon of the neighbourhood in which almost everyone was swathed only a few decades ago. This growing uncertainty of life enhances the need to withdraw to a home "base". However, this need is temporary and only concerns isolated moments of everyday life. The general tendency remains one of dispersal of spatial practices and individualisation of experience. ; La vie périurbaine contemporaine semble tendre vers le rejet de toute confrontation concrète avec l'altérité et, au-delà, vers l'invisibilité politique de l'autre (du moins lorsqu'il est différent). C'est dans ces termes que la littérature critique interprète la spécialisation sociale des quartiers résidentiels et la volonté croissante des périurbains de fermer leurs rues par des barrières. Ce discours paraît quelque peu partial, ne serait-ce que parce que les périurbains sont de plus en plus mobiles et que leur horizon quotidien se réduit de moins en moins à l'environnement immédiat de leur domicile. Comment comprendre en effet la recherche de l'entre-soi dans l'espace résidentiel comme un « repli communautaire » lorsque tous les indicateurs statistiques disponibles indiquent que la mobilité est devenue un élément constitutif des modes de vie et que le lieu d'habitation a perdu une large part de son poids existentiel ? A partir de recherches de terrain et d'une réflexion exploratoire, cet article tente de déconstruire la critique axée sur la dissolution de l'urbanité dans le périurbain en insistant sur les effets de la mobilité et en montrant leur complémentarité avec l'homogénéisation sociale des quartiers résidentiels. Pour ce faire, le propos s'appuie, d'une part sur la littérature existante, d'autre part sur des enquêtes menées par l'auteur auprès d'habitants des périphéries de deux grandes villes françaises (Charmes, 2005). A l'issue de ces analyses, il apparaît que la recherche de l'entre-soi peut être analysée d'une autre manière que celle proposée par la littérature critique. D'une part, les espaces résidentiels ne sont pas aussi aseptisés qu'il y paraît. Les rapports entre voisins constituent au minimum un embryon d'expérience de l'altérité et il est possible de concevoir les espaces résidentiels comme les lieux d'une « transition » entre l'espace protégé du logement et les espaces publics des grandes métropoles. D'autre part, l'article suggère que les mobilités tendent à renforcer le besoin de stabilité et de contrôle de l'espace proche. Elles ont entraîné les citadins bien loin du cocon rassurant du quartier, dans lequel la quasi-totalité d'entre eux baignaient il y a encore quelques décennies. L'incertitude croissante de la vie sociale qui a accompagné ce mouvement a renforcé le besoin d'une « base » de repli. Ce besoin est toutefois temporaire et ne concerne que des moments limités de la vie quotidienne. La tendance générale reste à l'éclatement des pratiques spatiales et à l'individualisation des expériences.

International audience ; The suburban way of life is tending towards a rejection of tangible confrontation with otherness so that other people – should they be different – become politically invisible. This is at any rate what the critical literature surmises about the growing desire of suburbanites to live amongst their own and sometimes even behind the safe and reassuring walls of gated communities. However appealing this analysis might be, it seems nonetheless rather partial. Suburban populations are increasingly mobile and their everyday horizon is less and less reduced to the immediate perimeter of the neighbourhood. Indeed, how can one interpret the social specialization of residential areas as a sign of "enclavism" when all the statistics available indicate that mobility has become a constitutive factor of people's way of life and the neighbourhood has all but lost its existential weight? Based on exploratory work, this paper aims to deconstruct the criticism articulated around the opposition of "suburbanism" and "urbanism" by emphasising the effects of the various forms of mobility and showing that they complement the proliferation of homogeneous neighbourhoods. In order to achieve this goal, the paper analyses the culture of people living at the periphery of two large French cities (Paris and Lyon). The arguments given are based both on the existing literature and on research the author carried out in France (Charmes, 2005). As a result of the analysis conducted, it becomes apparent that the increase in mobilities and the social homogenisation of neighbourhoods can be linked in other ways than the one suggested by the critical literature. On the one hand, contemporary residential areas are not as neutral and sterile as they appear to be. Relationships between neighbours and interactions with people from the surroundings constitute at least an embryonic experience of otherness. Residential areas can therefore be conceived as "transition spaces" between the protected space of the home and the relatively unknown spaces of the large metropolis. On the other hand, the paper defends the hypothesis that mobilities tend to reinforce the need for stability and control of one's immediate space. Mobilities have lead city dwellers out of the reassuring cocoon of the neighbourhood in which almost everyone was swathed only a few decades ago. This growing uncertainty of life enhances the need to withdraw to a home "base". However, this need is temporary and only concerns isolated moments of everyday life. The general tendency remains one of dispersal of spatial practices and individualisation of experience. ; La vie périurbaine contemporaine semble tendre vers le rejet de toute confrontation concrète avec l'altérité et, au-delà, vers l'invisibilité politique de l'autre (du moins lorsqu'il est différent). C'est dans ces termes que la littérature critique interprète la spécialisation sociale des quartiers résidentiels et la volonté croissante des périurbains de fermer leurs rues par des barrières. Ce discours paraît quelque peu partial, ne serait-ce que parce que les périurbains sont de plus en plus mobiles et que leur horizon quotidien se réduit de moins en moins à l'environnement immédiat de leur domicile. Comment comprendre en effet la recherche de l'entre-soi dans l'espace résidentiel comme un « repli communautaire » lorsque tous les indicateurs statistiques disponibles indiquent que la mobilité est devenue un élément constitutif des modes de vie et que le lieu d'habitation a perdu une large part de son poids existentiel ? A partir de recherches de terrain et d'une réflexion exploratoire, cet article tente de déconstruire la critique axée sur la dissolution de l'urbanité dans le périurbain en insistant sur les effets de la mobilité et en montrant leur complémentarité avec l'homogénéisation sociale des quartiers résidentiels. Pour ce faire, le propos s'appuie, d'une part sur la littérature existante, d'autre part sur des enquêtes menées par l'auteur auprès d'habitants des périphéries de deux grandes villes françaises (Charmes, 2005). A l'issue de ces analyses, il apparaît que la recherche de l'entre-soi peut être analysée d'une autre manière que celle proposée par la littérature critique. D'une part, les espaces résidentiels ne sont pas aussi aseptisés qu'il y paraît. Les rapports entre voisins constituent au minimum un embryon d'expérience de l'altérité et il est possible de concevoir les espaces résidentiels comme les lieux d'une « transition » entre l'espace protégé du logement et les espaces publics des grandes métropoles. D'autre part, l'article suggère que les mobilités tendent à renforcer le besoin de stabilité et de contrôle de l'espace proche. Elles ont entraîné les citadins bien loin du cocon rassurant du quartier, dans lequel la quasi-totalité d'entre eux baignaient il y a encore quelques décennies. L'incertitude croissante de la vie sociale qui a accompagné ce mouvement a renforcé le besoin d'une « base » de repli. Ce besoin est toutefois temporaire et ne concerne que des moments limités de la vie quotidienne. La tendance générale reste à l'éclatement des pratiques spatiales et à l'individualisation des expériences.

International audience ; The suburban way of life is tending towards a rejection of tangible confrontation with otherness so that other people – should they be different – become politically invisible. This is at any rate what the critical literature surmises about the growing desire of suburbanites to live amongst their own and sometimes even behind the safe and reassuring walls of gated communities. However appealing this analysis might be, it seems nonetheless rather partial. Suburban populations are increasingly mobile and their everyday horizon is less and less reduced to the immediate perimeter of the neighbourhood. Indeed, how can one interpret the social specialization of residential areas as a sign of "enclavism" when all the statistics available indicate that mobility has become a constitutive factor of people's way of life and the neighbourhood has all but lost its existential weight? Based on exploratory work, this paper aims to deconstruct the criticism articulated around the opposition of "suburbanism" and "urbanism" by emphasising the effects of the various forms of mobility and showing that they complement the proliferation of homogeneous neighbourhoods. In order to achieve this goal, the paper analyses the culture of people living at the periphery of two large French cities (Paris and Lyon). The arguments given are based both on the existing literature and on research the author carried out in France (Charmes, 2005). As a result of the analysis conducted, it becomes apparent that the increase in mobilities and the social homogenisation of neighbourhoods can be linked in other ways than the one suggested by the critical literature. On the one hand, contemporary residential areas are not as neutral and sterile as they appear to be. Relationships between neighbours and interactions with people from the surroundings constitute at least an embryonic experience of otherness. Residential areas can therefore be conceived as "transition spaces" between the protected space of the home and the relatively unknown spaces of the large metropolis. On the other hand, the paper defends the hypothesis that mobilities tend to reinforce the need for stability and control of one's immediate space. Mobilities have lead city dwellers out of the reassuring cocoon of the neighbourhood in which almost everyone was swathed only a few decades ago. This growing uncertainty of life enhances the need to withdraw to a home "base". However, this need is temporary and only concerns isolated moments of everyday life. The general tendency remains one of dispersal of spatial practices and individualisation of experience. ; La vie périurbaine contemporaine semble tendre vers le rejet de toute confrontation concrète avec l'altérité et, au-delà, vers l'invisibilité politique de l'autre (du moins lorsqu'il est différent). C'est dans ces termes que la littérature critique interprète la spécialisation sociale des quartiers résidentiels et la volonté croissante des périurbains de fermer leurs rues par des barrières. Ce discours paraît quelque peu partial, ne serait-ce que parce que les périurbains sont de plus en plus mobiles et que leur horizon quotidien se réduit de moins en moins à l'environnement immédiat de leur domicile. Comment comprendre en effet la recherche de l'entre-soi dans l'espace résidentiel comme un « repli communautaire » lorsque tous les indicateurs statistiques disponibles indiquent que la mobilité est devenue un élément constitutif des modes de vie et que le lieu d'habitation a perdu une large part de son poids existentiel ? A partir de recherches de terrain et d'une réflexion exploratoire, cet article tente de déconstruire la critique axée sur la dissolution de l'urbanité dans le périurbain en insistant sur les effets de la mobilité et en montrant leur complémentarité avec l'homogénéisation sociale des quartiers résidentiels. Pour ce faire, le propos s'appuie, d'une part sur la littérature existante, d'autre part sur des enquêtes menées par l'auteur auprès d'habitants des périphéries de deux grandes villes françaises (Charmes, 2005). A l'issue de ces analyses, il apparaît que la recherche de l'entre-soi peut être analysée d'une autre manière que celle proposée par la littérature critique. D'une part, les espaces résidentiels ne sont pas aussi aseptisés qu'il y paraît. Les rapports entre voisins constituent au minimum un embryon d'expérience de l'altérité et il est possible de concevoir les espaces résidentiels comme les lieux d'une « transition » entre l'espace protégé du logement et les espaces publics des grandes métropoles. D'autre part, l'article suggère que les mobilités tendent à renforcer le besoin de stabilité et de contrôle de l'espace proche. Elles ont entraîné les citadins bien loin du cocon rassurant du quartier, dans lequel la quasi-totalité d'entre eux baignaient il y a encore quelques décennies. L'incertitude croissante de la vie sociale qui a accompagné ce mouvement a renforcé le besoin d'une « base » de repli. Ce besoin est toutefois temporaire et ne concerne que des moments limités de la vie quotidienne. La tendance générale reste à l'éclatement des pratiques spatiales et à l'individualisation des expériences.

At a time of knowledge becoming increasingly relevant to social and economic development, governments worldwide aim at the creation of country-specific types of k-society, i.e. 'information societies', 'knowledge societies' or 'knowledge-based economies'. This book redraws the processes of constructing k-societies in Germany and Singapore and offers an empirically based definition of k-society which has been missing until now. Based on the conducted research, I argue that k-societies are created by collective actors in society and are not - as often assumed - merely the result or logical consequence of the technological developments in the information and communication sector, the growth of the service industry and the high profit margin of knowledge intensive goods. I empirically focus on the activities of the state as collective actor who massively pursues the creation of k-societies in Germany and Singapore. The remaining subsystems engaged in the construction process - economy, scientific community, civil society and the media – are merely assessed with regard to their influence on state activities. The process of constructing k-societies can be divided into (a) the development of the theoretical, categorically defined concepts of k-society; (b) the construction of a vision of self-emerging k-societies; and (c) the creation of country-specific k-societies as stages of social and economic development. At the beginning of the construction process stands the development of the idea of k-society by the international scientific community. Multiple, categorically-defined concepts of k-society as well as a manifold terminology were developed. The interchangeable use of terms to label the many k-society definitions nevertheless resulted in a rather blurry picture of k-society. Accelerated by the common assumption of the rise of k-societies, this created a fertile ground for the construction of a vision of a self-emerging k-society. This thesis outlines the role of the German and Singaporean governments in creating and utilising this vision. Most political programs which aim at the creation of a k-society as a stage of development justify their existence by pointing to the apparent rise of a k-society that should be monitored. Yet in actual terms, it is these programs that call the envisioned k-society into existence. Consequently, these government programs inherently (re-)define country-specific k-societies. By assessing these procedural definitions of k-society, this thesis offers clarity to what k-societies actually are: they are what they are defined as by the actors creating them. Theoretically this is based on Berger and Luckmann's theory of the social construction of reality (1984), defining knowledge, as what is regarded as knowledge by society. Germany and Singapore, the countries of investigation, share the commonality of being modern and aiming at developing into k-societies. At the same time, the structural realities of both countries differ markedly which is precondition to the analysis. The wide differences make it possible to show that (a) k-societies are not only created as political idea and stage of development but furthermore (b) the definitions of k-society and the paths taken to create them, highly depend on the structural realities and dominant definitions of knowledge in each country. Consequently, there is not one k-society, but multiple, country-specific k-societies. Nevertheless, the data also illustrate that k-societies do not only vary in different countries but that k-society as construct was in both countries in the beginning clearly an economic and technological programme. But over time, it became more and acts in Germany and even more in Singapore today as economic and technological programme, as well as a new focal point of collective identity offered by the state in order to reduce felt insecurities. As such, the suggested concept of multiple k-societies has to be interpreted within Eisenstadt's concept of multiple modernities, which leads me to answer the initial question, what k-society actually is by stating: k-society is to the second modernity, the time of multiple modernities what 'industrial society' was for the first, western modernity. K-society is a theoretical concept created by academics and scientists. K-society is a vision that legitimises and accelerates action towards its own realisation. K-society is a stage of development in which knowledge forms the center for social, cultural, economic and technologic development. K-society is a new focal point of identity in the second modernity. And finally, k-society is a social construction of reality that will shape our future to come. Empirically, this thesis is based on (a) qualitative expert interviews conducted in Germany and Singapore; (b) a quantitative analysis of the participation of subsystems in commissions and boards of directors; (c) a quantitative analysis of the k-society terminology; as well as (d) a qualitative analysis of government programs, action plans and final reports of government commissions contributing to the construction of k-societies.

The modelling of energy systems, which coevolved from socio-technological interactions and their interplay with the economy, plays a key role in the development of national and international policies to solve the problem of energy poverty. The other important issues addressed by energy system modelling are change in energy infrastructure, develop energy strategies, paving pathways towards technological sustainability and predicting future energy demand. Almost all energy system models are based on optimization of the lowest energy production cost, where the total cost is contributed jointly by the energy carrier's price and the cost of the associated technology subject to technical parameters. Minimizing the investment cost associated with a given technology is extremely important to sustain the surge in energy demand of the global market. Therefore, how the model applies endogenous investment costs to forecast the future benefit associated with the current knowledge subject to uncertainty in learning rates is an important aspect of energy system modelling and analysis. The influence of uncertainties in learning rates on global learning concepts without and with a technology gap (knowledge gap and time lag) is of concern in order to identify the road map of the technologies across regions. In this modelling study, five regional global models based on TIMES have been developed (TIMES is a model generator and stands for "The Integrated MARKAL EFOM System"). The regions are defined as 25 European nations (EU25), Rest of OECD (R_OECD), Rest of Non-OECD (R_NOECD), India and China, according to the nations included inside each region and also on their economic categorisation. It is a demand driven, bottom-up and technology abundant model, where GDP, population, and traffic demands are the main drivers for the development of energy demand in the past, present and future. It is a long-term model (1990-2100) consisting of 19 periods with unequal period lengths (5, 8 and 10 years). Each year is divided into three seasons and each season is further divided into day and night, as the smallest time resolution. The entire Reference Energy System (RES) is represented in the Global TIMES G5 model by extraction; inter-regional exchange; refineries; hydrogen (H2) production; synthetic fuel production; bio-fuel production; electricity and heat production; Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS); and sector-wise energy demands of industry, commerce, residential and transport, non-energy use and finally an integrated climate module. In the extraction sector, hard coal, lignite, crude oil and natural gas are modelled in four steps with the help of default cost-potential curves. Inter-regional exchanges of ten commodities are modeled for each region inside the TIMES G5 model. The final energy demand of end-use sectors such as industry, commerce and residential are modelled by different end use technologies to satisfy the users' energy demand. Natural and artificial carbon pools are included in the modelling aspect for the abatement of CO2 or carbon concentrations in the atmosphere to reduce climate warming. Two climate stabilization scenarios of CO2emissions of 500-ppmv and 550-ppmv have been used in order to estimate the sectoral restructuring of the energy system across different regions as well as its effect on atmospheric and deep ocean layer temperature rise. The phaseout of polluting fuels and the integration of non-polluting or less polluting fuels and renewable energy sources inside the sectoral energy system predominate across all regions. Sectoral energy demand and total final energy demand decreases in individual regions. Technologies such as fuel cells, fusion technology, Integrated Gasification Combined Cycle (IGCC) with CO2 sequestration, Combined Cycle Gas Turbine (CCGT) with CO2 sequestration and hydrogen production with CO2 sequestration are selected in the stabilization scenarios. The CO2 emission by fossil fuels, by sectors and by regions decreases. The atmospheric temperature rises by a maximum of 2.41oC and the ocean bed temperature rises by a maximum of 0.33oC up to the year 2100. The TIMES G5 global model has been developed to test global learning processes for the effect of uncertainties on learning rates of innovative technologies, i.e., technology diffusion across world regions subject to uncertainty in LRs for three PRs has been considered on implementation of floor cost approach The global learning process considering technology gap methodologies (knowledge gap and time lag) has been developed and tested for three different progress ratios of each technology for uncertainty of the technological return. Knowledge gap represents higher specific cost of the technology for developing regions and time lag approach presents a time lag in capacity transfer to developing regions compared to developed regions. This study shows the penetration and integration of new technologies such as IGCC, CCGT, solar photovoltaic (PV), wind onshore, wind offshore and geothermal heat pumps inside the energy system of different regions. Variations result observed by the inclusion of global learning without and with technology gaps in the form of higher specific cost (knowledge gap) and time lag. IGCC technology reaches its maximum potential in all scenarios across the globe. IGCC technology is preferred in the case of global learning without knowledge gap and time lag across developing regions compared to global learning with knowledge gap. CCGT technology development in manufacturing region decreases in global learning with technology knowledge gap compared to without knowledge gap concept. Wind onshore penetrates more in EU25 and R_OECD regions and in energy systems in a global learning concept without knowledge gap. Developed regions use more learning technology in the global learning with time lag concept because of the advantage of early investment cost reduction of learning technologies contributed by developing regions. Geothermal Heat Pump (geothermal HP) penetrates more across all regions and in all scenarios as the technology is modeled for global learning without knowledge gap and time lag. Bio-gasification, solid oxide fuel cells and molten carbonate fuel cells do not enter any energy system under any scenario. It is observed that learning technology diffuses more in higher learning rates and less in lower learning rates across the regions and the globe. The development of specific costs of innovative technologies is observed differently by period for developing and developed regions in global learning with technology gap in the form of higher specific cost approach. ; Die Modellierung von Energiesystemen entwickelte sich im Spannungsfeld von sozio-ökonomischen und technologischen Fragestellungen. Sie spielt eine Schlüsselrolle für Strategien in der nationalen und internationalen Energiepolitik und dient dazu, Probleme wie die Verknappung von Energieressourcen zu erkennen und zu lösen, Möglichkeiten zur Veränderung von Infrastrukturen im Energiesektor aufzuzeigen, den Weg für eine technologische Nachhaltigkeit zu ebnen und den zukünftigen Energiebedarf zu prognostizieren. Fast alle Energiesystemmodelle basieren auf der Optimierung der Kosten der Energieerzeugung, welche die Kosten für Energieträger und Anlagentechnologien in Abhängigkeit verschiedener technologisch-ökonomischer Parameter beinhalten. Die Anlagentechnologien stellen hierbei die Hauptkomponente sowohl der Energiekosten als auch für die wirtschaftliche Entwicklung dar. Die Reduktion der Investitionskosten für Anlagen zur Energieerzeugung ist eine wesentliche Fragestellung. Hierbei ist von großer Bedeutung, wie das Energiesystemmodell endogen Investitionskosten einsetzen kann, um zukünftige Potenziale ausgehend von den derzeitigen Kenntnissen zu prognostizieren. Der Einfluss der Unsicherheit von Lernraten bei der Endogenisierung des Lernprozesses und der Technologieauswahl muss hierzu untersucht werden. In einem globalen Lernkonzept unter Berücksichtigung von sogenannten Technologielücken, d. h. von zeitlichen Verzögerungen zwischen Verfügbarkeit und Implementierung von Technologien, kann die Entwicklung und Implementierung von neuen Technologien anhand von spezifischen Kosten und einer ggf. verzögerten Marktdurchdringung in verschiedenen Regionen untersucht werden. Im Rahmen dieser Studie wurde ein fünf Regionen Modell auf Basis des TIMES (The Integrated Markal Efom System) Modell-Generators entwickelt. Die Regionen sind definiert als die 25 europäischen Staaten (EU25), die restlichen Länder der OECD, die restlichen Länder außerhalb der OECD, Indien und China. Das Modell ist gesteuert durch den Energiebedarf, verwendet einen "Bottom-up"-Ansatz und beinhaltet die unterschiedlichsten Technologien. GDP, Bevölkerung und Verkehrsleistung sind die wesentlichen Faktoren für die Entwicklung des Energiebedarfs. Bei dem Modell handelt es sich um ein Langzeitmodell (Zeitraum 1990 bis 2100), das aus 19 Zeitperioden mit unterschiedlichen Längen (5, 8 und 10 Jahre) besteht. Jedes Jahr ist in drei Abschnitte unterteilt und jeder Abschnitt in Tag und Nacht als der höchsten zeitlichen Auflösung. Das gesamte Referenzenergiesystem (RES) wird im globalen TIMES G5 Modell durch die Energieträgergewinnung, den überregionalen Markt, Raffinerien, die Produktion von Synthesekraftstoffen, Biokraftstoffen, Wasserstoff, Strom und Wärme, Technologien zur CO2-Abscheidung und -Speicherung, den sektoralen Energiebedarf von Industrie, Gewerbe, Haushalten und Verkehr, den stofflichen Einsatz von fossilen Energieträgern und schließlich durch ein integriertes Klimamodul abgebildet. Die Gewinnung der Energieträger Steinkohle, Braunkohle, Rohöl und Erdgas wird in vier Schritten mit Kostenpotenzialkurven modelliert. Für jede Region wird der überregionale Handel von zehn Gütern innerhalb des TIMES G5-Modells abgebildet. Der Endenergiebedarf von Sektoren wie der Industrie, dem Gewerbe und den Haushalten wird mit unterschiedlichen Endnutzertechnologien modelliert. Natürliche und anthropogene Verfahren der CO2-Abscheidung und -Speicherung werden als CO2-Senken und Maßnahmen zur Minderung der Klimaerwärmung berücksichtigt. Im Rahmen der Arbeit wurden zwei Szenarien zur Stabilisierung der CO2-Emissionen auf einem Niveau von 500 ppmv und 550 ppmv betrachtet, um die sektorale Restrukturierung des Energiesystems in verschiedenen Regionen sowie den Temperaturanstieg in der Atmosphäre und am Meeresgrund abzuschätzen. In allen Regionen des sektoralen Energiesystems geht die Nutzung klimaschädlicher Energieträger zurück. Stattdessen dominiert die Nutzung nicht- oder weniger klimaschädlicher Energieträger sowie die Verwendung erneuerbarer Energiequellen. Der sektorale Energiebedarf und der totale Endenergiebedarf der einzelnen Regionen verringern sich. Technologien wie Brennstoffzellen, Fusionstechnologie, kombinierte Gas- und Dampf-Prozesse mit CO2-Abscheidung (mit integrierter Kohlevergasung (IGCC) oder mit Gasturbine (CCGT)) und Wasserstoffproduktion mit CO2-Abscheidung werden in den Stabilisierungsszenarien eingesetzt. Die CO2-Emissionen je Brennstoff, Sektor und Region verringern sich, die Temperatur der Atmosphäre steigt bis zum Jahr 2100 um maximal 2,41 °C an, die Temperatur am Meeresboden um maximal 0,33 °C. Das globale Modell TIMES G5 wurde entwickelt, um die globalen Lernprozesse im Hinblick auf die Unsicherheit der Lernrate von innovativen Technologien untersuchen zu können. Um die mögliche Bandbreite der Modellergebnisse zu begrenzen, wurde ein Ansatz basierend auf Mindestkosten entwickelt und angewendet. Die globalen Lernprozesse unter Berücksichtigung von Technologielücken wurden mit drei unterschiedlichen Fortschrittsraten je Technologie untersucht, welche die Unsicherheiten der technologischen Entwicklung in Bezug auf Implementierung und Kosten darstellen. Es wurde untersucht, inwiefern Technologielücken bei vergleichbaren Prozessen und Zeitperioden sich als höhere spezifische Kosten der Technologien in Entwicklungsländern und niedrigere spezifische Kosten in entwickelten Regionen widerspiegeln. In einem weiteren Ansatz wurden die Technologielücken als zeitlich verzögerte Kapazitätsentwicklungen abgebildet. Die spezifischen Kosten neuer Technologien in den Regionen unterscheiden sich bei beiden gewählten Ansätzen in Abhängigkeit von Diskontraten, Technologielücken je Periode und der Länge der untersuchten Zeitperioden. Im Ergebnis stellt die Arbeit die Marktdurchdringung und Integration von neuen Technologien wie IGCC, CCGT, Photovoltaikanlagen, "Onshore"- und "Offshore"-Windkraftanlagen und geothermischen Wärmepumpen in den Energiesystemen verschiedener Regionen dar. Unterschieden wird dabei zwischen der Anwendung eines globalen Lernkonzepts mit und ohne Berücksichtigung von Technologielücken, die in Form von höheren spezifischen Kosten der Technologien (knowledge gap) und einer zeitlichen Verschiebung ihrer Verfügbarkeit (time gap) abgebildet werden. IGCC Technologien erreichen in allen Szenarien ihr maximales Potenzial. Sie werden in sich entwickelnden Regionen bevorzugt bei Anwendung des globalen Lernkonzepts ohne knowledge gap und ohne time gap eingesetzt. Die Entwicklung der CCGT-Technologie in produzierenden Regionen verlangsamt sich beim globalen Lernkonzept mit knowledge gap gegenüber dem Konzept ohne knowledge gap. Die Marktdurchdringung von Onshore Windkraftanlagen findet vor allem in den Regionen EU25 und R_OECD und bei Anwendung des Lernkonzepts ohne knowledge gap statt. Entwickelte Regionen setzen Lerntechnologien insbesondere beim Lernkonzept mit time gap ein, wegen des Vorteils der frühen Investitionskostenreduzierung von Lerntechnologien aus sich entwickelnden Regionen. Geothermische Wärmepumpen werden in allen Regionen und Szenarien bevorzugt eingesetzt, da diese Technologie mit dem globalen Lernkonzept ohne knowledge gap und ohne time gap modelliert wurden. Biomassevergasung, Festoxid-Brennstoffzellen und Schmelz-Karbonat-Brennstoffzellen finden in keinem der Szenarien Eingang in eines der Energiesysteme. Weiter wurde beobachtet, dass das Spektrum der eingesetzten Lerntechnologien bei Annahme hoher Lernraten größer ist als bei niedrigen Lernraten. Die Entwicklung der spezifischen Kosten für innovative Technologien verläuft in Abhängigkeit vom globalen Lernkonzept, den betrachteten Technologielücken und den resultierenden verschiedenen spezifischen Technologiekosten in Entwicklungsländern und entwickelten Ländern unterschiedlich.

This paper suggests that decontrol of the gum arabic export market could increase export revenues for Sudan and raise significantly the income of small scale farmers. One of the key commitments made by the Government of National Unity under the Joint Assessment Mission framework was to "abolish the export monopoly" over raw gum arabic. This commitment has not been implemented. The objective of this policy note is twofold: (a) to assess the impact of the Government policy for the export marketing of gum arabic, (b) to identify options for changing the current marketing arrangements in order to increase and stabilize gum exports, capture more value added in Sudan and provide producers with a larger share of export prices.

In the context of the radical changes that East European countries have recently gone through, it is of general interest to study what institutional and organisational setups for forest management were selected in the individual countries, and why. The purpose of this thesis is to examine what reforms took place in the State forest management of Ukraine, the Russian Federation and Latvia during their first decade of independence and the underlying reasons for these reforms. In order to analyse the underlying reasons for reforms, a number of explanatory models were formulated, mostly based on Public Choice theory and theories on institutional development. By testing these models - Interest Group Struggles, Political Necessity, Historical Experience, Path Dependency and Influence of Clientelism and Black Economy, on the forest sector reforms, the applicability of each model on each reform was evaluated. This way the most likely motives for the reforms could be described. The three countries of the study were selected because of observed divergence in forest sector reforms during the first decade of transition. The results show that all the explanatory models can be used to explain the reform process, but on individual reforms, one or two models usually lead to a more likely explanation of the process observed. Looking on individual models and beginning with Russia, some key reforms in the forest sector were initiated because they were part of the Government's general reform agenda. Such reforms, when they led to reforms in the forest sector, have here been labelled Political Necessities, implying that the major decisions generated outside of the sector. The main such reforms in Russia, originated from the decision to privatise forest industry but to keep forest State-owned. Most of the other reforms of the period were consequences of this general decision but additional understanding of them was shown to be provided by using the other models of the study. Interest group struggles, particularly between forest management and forest industry organisations, but also between different levels of Government, were intensive during the studied period, and many of the reforms studied were resulting compromises. The analyses demonstrate that the most fundamental Russian forest sector reforms during the studied period were mostly formed already in the end of the Soviet period or in the very first years of the Russian Federation. It can be questioned whether this was not premature. In Ukraine, the reform process in society as a whole slowed down considerably after only few years of independence and in many sectors, the transition to market economy was not complete. One can argue that the Ukraine State Forest Committee as an organisation was an example of this, given that it continued to control the majority of Ukraine's forests, enjoyed a close-to monopoly on final fellings and came to control a large part of Ukraine's forest industry. The processes that led to this situation were strongly influenced by Interest Group Struggles and Path Dependency. As for Latvia, most striking is the breech with the Soviet-era institutional set-up and thus also with Path Dependency. In a first phase of reform in 1990-1995, several similarities between Latvian and Russian reforms can be found, although the Latvian reforms went further as a result of massive forest restitution. In a second phase however, Latvia created a new institutional and organisational setup, more similar to the Scandinavian countries. The models that best explain Latvian forest sector reform are Political Necessity and Historic Experience, the latter because Latvian institutions from the period before World War II were frequently used as models for reform. By the end of the studied period, the main forest institutions and organisations demonstrated practically no resemblance to what had existed prior to 1990. In this respect, Latvia differed very clearly from Russia and Ukraine. The differences between Latvia as compared to Ukraine and Russia have many explanations, as demonstrated by application of the different models on the individual reforms. On a larger scale however, the differences appear tied to whether reforms emanated from within or outside the State forest management and State forest industry organisations. Latvian Government decisions in 1988-91 on land restitution to pre-war owners and its 1995 Concept of Public Administration Reform, strongly influenced reforms in the forest sector. Further, Latvian openness to international support in policy and institutional development, and the fact that a young generation took over leadership roles in the sector, were also important factors. Also, after 1997, views of other interested parties were systematically integrated in the Latvian reform process. In neither Russia nor Ukraine did forest privatisation take place. Forest policy, legislation and State forest management questions were during most of the studied period largely determined by the State forest management organisation, but under steady criticism from adjacent interests. This atmosphere fostered a marked conservatism. Such fundamental changes that many transition countries' forest sectors went through during the past two decades are highly unusual events, and it is important that the experiences are collected while still in the active memory of the people that participated. This kind of studies can be of help in future analyses of other countries' forest sectors. Particularly, it is the hope of the author that experience from the East European transition period reforms will be utilised in planning future forest sector reforms in other countries, notably in Western Europe.

ÖZETBu Yüksek lisans çalışmasının amacı, Avrupa Birliği'nin (AB) kriz yönetimi alanında özerkliğini ve de manevra kabiliyetini, NATO'yla ilişkileri göz önünde bulundurularak, nasıl tanımlandığını analiz etmektir. Çalışma temel uc argüman üzerine kurulmuştur. Birinci argüman, AB'nin kriz yönetimindeki özerkliği ve de belli ölçüdeki manevra kabiliyeti AB'nin ve de NATO'nun önceliklerine bağlı olarak tanımlanır. İkinci argüman, AB'nin askeri operasyonlarının sivil operasyonlarla tamamlanmasının özerklik tanımı üzerinde büyük etkisi vardır. Üçüncü argüman ise, her askeri operasyonun kendi özellikleri içerisinde ele alınmasıyla AB`nin özerkliği ya da manevra kabiliyeti sınanabilir. Bu argümanları kanıtlayarak, çalışmanın ana sorusuna cevap verebilmek için, AB'nin güvenlik ve savunma alanında geçirdiği değişimleri ve gelişimi, tarihsel bağlamda –Soğuk Savaş sonrası- AB-NATO ilişkilerinin gelişimini ve de teoriden sıyrılarak AB'nin pratikteki deneyimleri olan askeri operasyonları ile sivil operasyonları üzerinde durulmuştur.Bu bağlamda, çalışmanın birinci bölümünde; Soğuk Savaş sonrası AB-NATO ilişkileri ve de AB içerisinde kriz yönetimi alanında özerkliğin sağlanmasıyla ilgili istekli seslerin yükselmesi incelenmiştir. Bu bölüm, çalışmanın ana bölümü olan ikinci bölüme hazırlık niteliğindedir. Çalışmanın ikinci bölümünde, AB'nin yürütmüş olduğu askeri operasyonlar; özellikleri, kapasiteleri, AB ve NATO'nun öncelikleri ve de Avrupa Güvenlik ve Savunma Politikası üzerindeki etkileri ele alınarak incelenmiştir. Bunlar Concordia, Artemis ve de Althea operasyonlarıdır. Çalışmanın üçüncü bölümü ise, ikinci bölümü tamamlar niteliktedir. Proxima, Kinshasa Polis Misyonu, Demokratik Kongo Cumhuriyeti Güvenlik Sektörü Reformu Misyonu ve de Bosna Hersek Polis Misyonu incelenmiştir. Bu bölümün amacı, özerkliğin sağlanması için sivil operasyonların ne denli önemli olduğunu ve askeri operasyonları takip etmesi gerekliliğini göstermektir.Bütün bu incelemeler sonucunda, şu sonuçlara ulaşılmıştır:-AB, krizin coğrafi konumu ve de güvenlik ve savunma konularındaki görev ya da yük paylaşımı prensibi sayesinde şekillenen kendi öncelikleri ve de aynı konulardaki NATO'nun önceliklerini hesaplayarak kriz yönetimi hususunda özerklik ve de manevra kabiliyetini tanımlar.-AB'nin askeri operasyonları sivil operasyonlarıyla tamamlandığı zaman kriz yönetimindeki özerkliği de tamamlanır ve güçlenir. Çünkü sivil operasyonlar askeri operasyonları amaç ve özellikler yönünden tamamlar ve de AB'nin kriz coğrafyasına yönelttiği bütünleşmiş kriz yönetimini tanımlar. -AB`nin güvenlik ve savunma alanındaki özerkliği ya da manevra kabiliyeti, her operasyonun kendi içerisinde; uluslararası durum, krizin coğrafi konumu, taraflar, tarafların öncelikleri ele alınarak, tek başına analiz edilmesi ile sınanır. ABSTRACTThis study aims at analysing autonomy and the margin of manoeuver that the EU might define while taking into account the predominant role of NATO in security and defence fields, with a strong emphasis on the military operations of the EU. The first argument of the study is that 'autonomy and the margin of manoeuver of the EU in crisis management are determined by the priorities of the EU while taking into account NATO's priorities'. The second one is that 'when the military operations of the EU are complemented with its civilian missions, they have greater impact on the definition of the Union's autonomous reaction capacity'. In order to enhance and prove these arguments, the study is built upon the historical evaluation of the EU in the security and defence fields, the historical evolution of the EU and NATO relationship after the Cold War and upon the test cases that are the EU's military and civilian crisis management operations in order to evaluate autonomy and margin of manoeuver.Within this framework, the first chapter of the study is constructed on the EU and NATO relations after the end of the Cold War, on the rising voices for the quest for autonomy by the EU. The EU is analyzed as an awakening partner in security and defense issues. The first chapter constitutes the basis, the supporting point and the guidelines for the second chapter. The second chapter is constructed on the concrete cases, -the military operations of the EU namely, Operation Concorida, Artemis and Althea- where the EU has experienced the margin of manoeuver and autonomy in crisis management and also it is constructed on the importance of the priorities of the EU and NATO. It constitutes the spinal column of the study. The third chapter is considered as necessary and complementary to the second chapter, as its objective is to underline the importance of the complementarity of the civilian capabilities of the EU to the military ones in the definition of autonomy. In this context, EUPOL/Proxima, the EU Police Mission in Kinshasa, the EU Security Sector Reform Mission in the DRC, the EUPM/BiH are analysed.The study reaches the conclusion that the EU might define autonomy and the margin of manoeuver in crisis management, according to its priorities which are shaped by the geographical location of the conflict, by burden sharing principle and also taking into account NATO priorities. Secondly, when the military operations of the EU are complemented by the civilian operations, they have a great impact on the definition of autonomy as they complement the military operations in terms of objectives, in terms of defining the integrated approach of the EU. Thirdly the case-by-case analysis is required in order to gauge autonomy or the margin of maneuver of the EU. Because each operation occurs in different international context, necessitates the involvement of specific actors, it has its own reasons, characteristics, requirements.