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Much of what goes by the name of post-modernism might be better described as post-avant-garde. It represents an epoch marked by the failure of the historical avant-garde's attack on the institutions of art. This failure sheds light on the role of art in bourgeois society. (Abstract amended)

THIS ARTICLE EXPLORES THE POLICY DECISION MAKING RELEVANCE OF THE FAIRLY WELL-DOCUMENTED PHENOMENON THAT INDIVIDUALS TEND TO MORE TOWARDS RISKIER DECISIONS AFTER GROUP DISCUSSIONS (RISKY SHIFT). THE RESEARCH INCLUDED FOUR HUNDRED AND THIRTY TWO POLICY DECISION MAKERS FROM VARIOUS PARTS OF THE WORLD. DETAILED RESULTS, CONCLVISIONS, AND IMPLICATIONS ARE INCLUDED.

The phenomenon of the risky shift, or the greater likelihood of individuals making risky decisions after they have engaged in group discussions of these decisions, is fairly well documented. However, data from 432 decision-makers from ten nations, collected through methods developed by W. L. Tullar & D. F. Johnson ("Group Decision-Making and the Risky Shift: A Transnational Perspective," Technical Report 48, Rochester: Management Research Center, U of Rochester, 1972) shows consistent moves toward greater risk-avoidance when problems are important & decision-makers initially less cautious. This suggests that risk-acceptance in groups is contingent upon other factors which must be analyzed for each situation. 2 Tables. Modified HA.

It has become increasingly clear that desertification can only be tackled through a multi-disciplinary approach that not only involves scientists but also stakeholders. In the DESIRE project such an approach was taken. As a first step, a conceptual framework was developed in which the factors and processes that may lead to land degradation and desertification were described. Many of these factors do not work independently, but can reinforce or weaken one another, and to illustrate these relationships sustainable management and policy feedback loops were included. This conceptual framework can be applied globally, but can also be made site-specific to take into account that each study site has a unique combination of bio-physical, socio-economic and political conditions. Once the conceptual framework was defined, a methodological framework was developed in which the methodological steps taken in the DESIRE approach were listed and their logic and sequence were explained. The last step was to develop a concrete working plan to put the project into action, involving stakeholders throughout the process. This series of steps, in full or in part, offers explicit guidance for other organizations or projects that aim to reduce land degradation and desertification. © 2014, Springer Science+Business Media New York.