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New Order Government tends to consider as zakat and tax liabilities are different. There is an exciting development in the era of reform with the passage of Act No. 38 of 1999 on the Management of Zakat and converted into Act 23 of 2011. It seems that the government has to have the desire to accommodate the charity as potential aspects to reduce taxes. Moreover, the idea of integrating the zakat and taxes in one more incentive system sounded. If this is true, the government may implement two points of maqâshid al-syarî'ah, namely hifzh al-dîn and hifzh al-mâl. DOI:10.15408/ajis.v15i1.2841

This article examines ideas of local government crisis in the UK aiming to apply macrolevel political economy debates to this sector. Two observations underpin its rationale. The first concerns structuralism's neglect of local government and the disconnection from its lively history of crisis discourses. Crisis discourses are a key frame through which local government actors have come to understand their environment. The second is that the fast-growing literature on crisis leadership says little about the underlying causes of crises. The article synthesises a political-sociological interest in crisis with the grounded focus of interpretivism to offer insights about context and practice.

This paper describes how prediction markets can make governments smarter, cheaper, and more responsive to changing conditions. A prediction market resembles a stock exchange where traders buy and sell not shares of companies, but claims about various future events. Academic and commercial use of prediction markets indicates that they offer a useful tool for encouraging, collecting, and quantifying widely scattered expertise. Government administrators have begun experimenting with prediction markets, too. Many questions remain, however, about the proper way to implement government prediction markets. This paper opens with a brief survey of the costs and benefits of government prediction markets. It then turns to ironing out the statutory and regulatory wrinkles occasioned by government prediction markets in general, and by federal executive prediction markets in particular. The paper begins by asking who should run government prediction markets and who should trade on them. The short answers: Government agencies should outsource the provision of prediction markets and let employees and outside contractors trade on them. The paper then turns to mitigating the legal risks raised by government prediction markets-especially those offering cash or other valuable consideration-and advocates such prophylactics as hosting spot transactions in negotiable conditional notes, offering traders seed funding, and contractually mandating a minimum level of trading. The paper concludes by describing a three-step plan for putting prediction markets to work for the United States government and, through it, the People.

chapter 1 Introduction -- chapter 2 On technology, intelligence and the social -- chapter 3 The Information Society -- chapter 4 Bureaucracy and virtual organizations -- chapter 5 The political economy of information networks -- chapter 6 E-Government: A wired government takes shape -- chapter 7 ICT evaluation -- chapter 8 Conclusions and reflection.

This study shows that the Government of Sweden has been trying to reduce landfilling through the Government regulation in WM. The Government has the aim to increase re-use,recycling, composting, energy recovery which leads to lower environmental impact, lower consumption of energy resources, and lower economic costs.On the basis of the EU Waste Management legislation they developed economic instruments for WM in Sweden. The Extended Producer Responsibility for Packaging was studied due to thefact that it forced the producers to create the recycling companies which help to keep working ahuge and rather complicated material recycling system in Sweden.In this work waste handling system for households and industry was overviewed as well as the costs for waste handling in Sweden.There was an effort to analyse the effectiveness of the Government regulation in WM inSweden.The purpose of this study is to analyse and discuss if it's possible to implement Swedish WMGovernment regulation in Belarus. So, the current situation of waste flow and the economicinstruments for WM in Belarus were studied. In the process of work there were difficulties infinding data in Belarus.In this study there were discussed the actions need to be taken in Belarus to implement theSwedish experience in WM and difficulties on the way to reach the sustainable waste management.Keywords: government regulation, waste management, EU Waste Management legislation,producer responsibility, waste handling, recycling companies, economic instruments. ; www.ima.kth.se

The two writers whose visions of a utopian future for humanity Malthus chiefly sought to puncture through his principle of population were Godwin and Condorcet. The objection Malthus had to both was that the prosperous and egalitarian society they envisaged would be undermined by the population growth it brought about. As Malthus himself acknowledged, this was not a novel argument: in the second (1803) edition of the Essay, he listed the authors from whom he had "deduced the principle"—David Hume, Robert Wallace, Adam Smith, and Richard Price. Wallace, the closest among these four to being a Utopian thinker, explicitly saw population growth as clouding the future: unlimited increase would impair prosperity, but efforts by the society to curtail it would require "cruel and unnatural customs."Wallace's views of Utopia are set out in his book Various Prospects of Mankind, Nature and Providence, published in 1761. There are twelve "prospects" in all. The first is titled "A general view of the imperfections of human society, and of the sources from whence they flow"; the second presents a "model of a perfect government"; the third investigates the feasibility of this model; and the fourth adduces the proposition "The preceding model of government, tho' consistent with the human passions and appetites, is upon the whole inconsistent with the circumstances of mankind upon the Earth." The remaining prospects go further into the natural world, the nature of happiness, and the afterlife. Prospects I and IV are excerpted below.Under a perfect government, "poverty, idleness, and war [would be] banished; the earth made a paradise; universal friendship and concord established, and human society rendered flourishing in all respects." Yet paradoxically, such a society would be overturned "not by the vices of men, or their abuse of liberty, but by the order of nature itself." This objection is enough to defeat the "airy systems" of the Utopians. Wallace calls for a middle way for government and society, "to set just bounds to every thing according to its nature, and to adjust all things in due proportion to one another." He writes: "it is more contrary to just proportion, to suppose that such a perfect government should be established in such circumstances, than that by permitting vice, or the abuse of liberty in the wisdom of providence, mankind should never be able to multiply so greatly as to overstock the earth."Wallace was born in Edinburgh in 1697 and died there in 1771. He was a presbyterian minister who held various offices in the Church of Scotland. In addition to the Prospects, his other major works were Characteristics of the Present Political State of Great Britain (1758) and Dissertation on the Numbers of Mankind in Antient and Modern Times (1753). The latter included a vigorous rejoinder to Hume's argument (in his Dissertation on the Numbers of Mankind, published the preceding year) that the classical world was not more populous than the present. Wallace's argument for the populousness of ancient nations supported the view earlier put by Montesquieu—who arranged for a French translation of Wallace's book.Modern editions of Wallace's writings appear in the series Reprints of Economic Classics published by Augustus M. Kelley, New York.

WHILE ITS NEIGHBORS IN AFRICA HAVE ENDURED YEARS OF ECONOMIC CRISIS, POLITICAL TURMOIL, AND CIVIL WAR, THE KINGDOM OF SWAZILAND HAS REMAINED STABLE AND PEACEFUL. THIS STABILITY IS ATTRIBUTED TO SWAZILAND'S UNIQUE SYSTEM OF GOVERNMENT, "TINKHUNDLA," WHICH MEANS A TRADITIONAL MEETING PLACE. IN MODERN SWAZILAND, THE TUNKHUNDLA HAVE BECOME LOCAL GOVERNMENT ADMINISTRATION CENTERS.

Professor Brozen, economist at the Graduate School of Business, University of Chicago, casts a critical eye on the increasing emphasis on government supported and directed research. Specifically utilizing military research as a case in point, he argues that instead of increasing government expenditures for research these expenditures should be greatly reduced.

THE STUDY OF THE INTERACTION BETWEEN THE ECONOMIC AND POLITICAL BEHAVIOR OF GOVERNMENTS IN DEMOCRATIC, WESTERN CAPITALIST COUNTRIES HAS YIELDED MANY INSIGHTS IN THE THREE DECADES SINCE ANTHONY DOWNS' AN ECONOMIC THEORY OF DEMOCRACY WAS PUBLISHED IN 1957. SIMILARLY, THE STUDY OF THE OVERT POLITICAL COMPONENT OF THE ECONOMIC DECISION-MAKING PROCESS IN AUTHORITARIAN, EASTERN CENTRALLY-PLANNED ECONOMIES HAS ATTAINED A GREAT DEGREE OF REFINEMENT IN THE POST-STALIN ERA. FOR MOST COUNTRIES IN THE WORLD, HOWEVER, NEITHER MODEL APPLIES VERY WELL. RATHER THERE IS A THIRD TYPE - MORE OR LESS AUTHORITARIAN CUM MORE OR LESS CAPITALIST - WHICH REASONABLY DESCRIBES A LARGE NUMBER OF DEVELOPING COUNTRIES. IT IS LIKELY THAT THE BEHAVIOR OF THESE COUNTRIES' GOVERNMENTS WILL NOT BE WELL EXPLAINED BY MODELS WHICH FIT THE OTHER TWO TYPES. THIS PAPER PROPOSES A FRAMEWORK IN WHICH THE ECONOMIC DECISIONS OF AUTHORITARIAN GOVERNMENTS CAN BE ANALYZED WITHOUT ASSUMING THAT THE GOVERNMENT IS THE ONLY ECONOMIC AGENT, THUS IN BASICALLY CAPITALIST COUNTRIES WHERE ELECTIONS ARE NOT THE MEANS BY WHICH POWER IS VALIDATED AND TRANSFERRED.

Local government administration in Nigeria is as old as history and its dated back pre-colonial era. It had been part of system of government among ethnic groups in Nigeria particularly the Yoruba in the West, Hausa/Fulani in the North and the Igbo in the East. Each ethnic group operating it as it suits their cultural value. Under colonial administration, it was known as indirect rule system. It was an attempt to govern the people through their chief. At independence and thereafter, the system has since been restructured and reorganized depending on the regime and the nature of government in power. These changes have made it to pass through series of uncertainties and with peculiar characteristics. The paper, therefore, examines the historical development of local government in Nigerian state. The research methodology is carried out through the use of secondary data. However, the paper founds out that, the current state of Local Government in Nigeria is characterised by unbridled interference of the State Government and therefore recommends that, there is need to review the Constitution to make Local Government autonomous especially on the issues of fiscal power, functions and responsibilities.

Description based on: June 1979. ; American statistics index ; Mode of access: Internet. ; Published by: Office of Long-Range Assessments and Research, Bureau of Intelligence and Research, U.S. Dept. of State, June 1980-.

More than half the nations that exist today have gained their independence since 1945. During this period over 2,300 individuals have ruled the various nations of the world; this encyclopedia offers insight into the history of individual nations through the lives of their leaders. Outstanding Academic Book