Suchergebnisse

Importantes falencias en los procedimientos de licenciamiento ambiental en Colombia se relacionan directamente con la degradación generalizada de sus franjas costeras y zonas litorales. Estas áreas se encuentran afectadas severamente por intervenciones humanas que interfieren con los procesos naturales y modifican sustancialmente sus balances sedimentarios, contextos geomorfológicos y condiciones físico-bióticas. Entre muchos otros ejemplos, se destacan: a) La erosión generalizada y la destrucción de playas y dunas en el delta del Río Magdalena, asociadas a la construcción de los tajamares de Bocas de Ceniza; b) La modificación drástica de la hidrodinámica de los litorales de los departamentos del Atlántico y Magdalena por proyectos de infraestructura lineal; c) la híper-salinización y pérdida de más de 30,000 hectáreas de manglar en el complejo lagunar de la Ciénaga Grande de Santa Marta (CGSM) debido a la expansión de la frontera agrícola e infraestructura lineal d) el retroceso acelerado de playas y acantilados en el Caribe sur, debido a actividades como la deforestación, extracción de materiales de playa y construcción desordenada y caótica de cerca de 500 obras de defensa costera; y e) La salinización de más de 10,000 hectáreas de pantanos de agua dulce en la Bahía de Cispatá, como consecuencia de la formación inducida del nuevo delta de Tinajones. En este sentido, la ubicación de infraestructura en terrenos geológica y geomorfológicamente inestables, afectados por fenómenos como la subsidencia costera y el diapirismo de lodos, plantea amenazas y riesgos naturales de primer orden. Este es un panorama palpable en el presente y futuro de zonas urbanas y rurales de ciudades como Barranquilla, Cartagena, Arboletes y Necoclí, todas ellas con desarrollos futuros (industria, puertos, urbanísticos) de la mayor importancia. Los costos ambientales asociados a intervenciones como las mencionadas son incalculables, sin contar la existencia de otros numerosos ejemplos, que evidencian entre otros factores un insuficiente reconocimiento a la geomofología en la evaluación, seguimiento y control de las intervenciones humanas en el entorno marino-costero. Estas funciones de manejo ambiental en Colombia se surten por medio del procedimiento de licenciamiento ambiental, que están a cargo de autoridades de orden nacional y regional según la Ley 99 de 1993. En el contexto anterior, se plantean las siguientes preguntas de investigación:  ¿Qué elementos del licenciamiento ambiental de intervenciones en ambientes costeros pueden mejorarse, dando prioridad a los contextos geomorfológicos particulares de las zonas de intervención?  ¿Cómo ha evolucionado el sistema regulatorio en Colombia con respecto a las intervenciones humanas sobre los ambientes costeros? 20  ¿Qué mejoras técnicas se pueden hacer al marco regulatorio colombiano para guiar la evaluación, seguimiento y control de intervenciones humanas desde el enfoque geomorfológico de susceptibilidad? Este trabajo examina el marco regulatorio ambiental que actualmente rige en las zonas costeras colombianas, a través de dos niveles geográficos. En un primer nivel macro se caracterizan y analizan las intervenciones humanas en el litoral Caribe continental, región que representa una muestra significativa del contexto colombiano por sus mayores niveles de ocupación humana y consecuentes perturbaciones antropogénicas. En un segundo nivel, de mayor detalle, se define e ilustra el enfoque conceptual y metodológico que resulta de esta investigación, con la demostración en una de las unidades ambientales costeras definidas por el decreto 1120 de 2013 para el manejo costero integrado. Para responder a los interrogantes planteados, el Capítulo I introduce brevemente la evolución geomorfológica histórica de los litorales colombianos desde finales del siglo XVIII. En este "abrebocas" se evidencia la compleja geología y geomorfología de las costas Caribe y Pacífico de Colombia, en las cuales islas-barrera deltaicas de bajo relieve y manglares contrastan con relieves rocosos escarpados, acantilados y amplias plataformas costeras emergidas y sumergidas. La evolución histórica de los litorales colombianos involucra cambios en la línea de costa estimados en cientos de metros, a tasas máximas de 40 metros al año (Punta Rey, Arboletes, Bahía de Tumaco), y pérdidas y ganancias de terrenos del orden de decenas de kilómetros cuadrados (Ciénaga de Mallorquín, Isla Cascajo, Delta de Tinajones-Bahía de Cispatá, Golfo de Urabá, Delta de los ríos San Juan y Patía). Estos casos reflejan variaciones drásticas en los balances de sedimentos del litoral, muchos de ellos provocados o influenciados por acciones humanas, como infraestructura para la navegación, modificación de cauces y obras de protección costera. El Capítulo II identifica la perspectiva geomorfológica en el licenciamiento ambiental de intervenciones costeras en Colombia, a partir de su comparación con los marcos regulatorios de Italia, España y Cuba. Las entrevistas y revisiones documentales destacaron 59 intervenciones asociadas con usos y actividades humanas en las zonas costeras, cuya obligatoriedad para el licenciamiento varía entre países. Los procesos geomorfológicos naturales también fueron analizados dentro de los criterios técnicos incluidos en las directrices oficiales para estudios ambientales. Se concluye que, a pesar de la aceptación mundial de las evaluaciones de impacto ambiental como procedimiento de licenciamiento, su aplicación es aún muy diversa y limitada en cuanto a la pertinencia de los procesos geomorfológicos costeros. Por consiguiente, se identifican siete buenas prácticas para la evaluación y el control de los impactos antropogénicos en la zona costera y se introduce un nuevo enfoque, orientado en procesos, para los procedimientos de licenciamiento ambiental. 21 En el Capítulo III se hace un inventario y se caracterizan las intervenciones humanas sobre la costa continental del Caribe colombiano, para establecer una línea base regional. A partir de imágenes de Google Earth, se ubicaron un total de 2,742 obras y actividades, que representan 29 tipos diferentes de intervenciones humanas. Este inventario se complementó con una evaluación del impacto general de cada intervención, en función de cuatro atributos de sus efectos geomorfológicos, a saber, extensión, intensidad, reversibilidad y persistencia. Los tres tipos de intervenciones humana más comunes (asentamientos de baja densidad, espolones y asentamientos de lujo con muelle) fueron también los más impactantes. Sin embargo, algunas intervenciones (por ejemplo, asentamientos de alta densidad o infraestructura vial) tuvieron valores de impacto ambiental más altos que otras más frecuentes. A partir de este análisis exhaustivo del Caribe colombiano, en el Capítulo IV se evalúa el marco regulatorio ambiental nacional aplicable a las áreas costeras. Se evidencia que el procedimiento de licenciamiento en Colombia actualmente solo regula cuatro de los diez tipos de intervenciones con mayor efecto en las zonas costeras colombianas. También se resalta que el número de obras y actividades cubiertas en cada nueva reforma legislativa disminuyó constantemente con el tiempo. Adicionalmente, se extrajeron tres implicaciones políticas para la planificación costera y oceánica, relacionadas con: a) la diversidad geográfica de las zonas costeras tropicales; b) la necesidad de instrumentos de capacidad de carga territorial; y c) la falta de articulación de los instrumentos de planificación territorial. Las conclusiones identifican una brecha importante entre la toma de decisiones técnicas y políticas en el marco regulatorio ambiental de Colombia, lo que subraya la necesidad de diseñar nuevos métodos para evaluar la amplitud y la dimensión de la dinámica geomorfológica en un contexto de manejo ambiental. Por consiguiente, los capítulos anteriores resaltan tres deficiencias importantes en Colombia, con respecto al manejo ambiental de intervenciones humanas en zonas costeras: 1) la ausencia de una estrategia para determinar intervenciones que requieren un procedimiento de licencia ambiental (screening); 2) una deficiente definición del alcance de los estudios ambientales a través de requisitos de información pertinentes (scoping); y 3) la desarticulación de los instrumentos de gestión ambiental, como la planificación territorial y las licencias ambientales. Todos estos elementos ratifican que el marco regulatorio ambiental en Colombia ha sido insuficiente hasta la fecha para manejar el impacto antropogénico en los ambientes costeros, debido a que no se tiene en cuenta la susceptibilidad natural al efecto de las intervenciones humanas. En este trabajo se define susceptibilidad como la predisposición de una unidad ambiental (sistema socio-natural) para experimentar cambios o afectaciones debido a la introducción de una intervención humana. Con el fin de proponer mejoras al sistema ambiental colombiano, el Capítulo V plantea un nuevo modelo conceptual y metodológico para guiar la evaluación, el seguimiento y el control de los 22 impactos humanos desde una perspectiva geomorfológica. Este producto novedoso se ha denominado Susceptibilidad a las Intervenciones Humanas con fines de Licenciamiento Ambiental (SHIELP en inglés). La arquitectura de este modelo tiene tres componentes, que son particulares para un tipo de entorno, a saber, procesos geomorfológicos, configuraciones geomorfológicas e intervenciones humanas potencialmente impactantes. Cada uno de estos componentes se traduce en una variable por medio de calificaciones de expertos y el cálculo de lógica difusa. Por lo tanto, el sistema experto-difuso SHIELP cuantifica la susceptibilidad de una geoforma distintiva a los efectos de un tipo característico de intervención humana, a través de la perturbación estimada en cada proceso geomorfológico que configura el tipo de ambiente en estudio. Como demostración, este capítulo también documenta el diseño del sistema experto-difuso para ambientes costeros, esbozado en talleres de investigación con miembros del Instituto de Investigaciones Marinas y Costeras "José Benito Vives de Andréis"- INVEMAR. El rol que cumple este instituto como asesor oficial de las autoridades ambientales en cuestiones de evaluación de impacto, demuestran su pertinencia para soportar la base de conocimiento experto del modelo. Como resultado, el modelo SHIELP se aplicó con los parámetros establecidos para los entornos costeros, derivando en una base de datos de valores de susceptibilidad para 4,524 interacciones (configuración litoral frente a intervención). La aplicabilidad real de este ejercicio corresponde a la traducción de esta base de datos en un criterio técnico para mejorar el marco regulatorio colombiano. Por un lado, cinco rangos de susceptibilidad se vincularon a cinco instrumentos diferenciados, dos de los cuales articulan el licenciamiento ambiental con planes territoriales, mientras que los otros diferencian el tipo licenciamiento pertinente según las propiedades de ubicación de la intervención (screening). Por otro lado, los instrumentos diferenciados también se combinaron con cuatro grados de requisitos de información para la definición del alcance en los estudios ambientales respectivos (scoping). De esta manera, el valor de susceptibilidad de una intervención dada en una configuración determinada (interacción) se ajusta a un rango percentilico que establece la competencia territorial (regional o nacional) para su control ambiental, así como un instrumento de licencia específico con requisitos de información diferenciados para la definición de la línea base ambiental. Finalmente, la operación del modelo SHIELP se demostró con un estudio de caso: la unidad ambiental costera Rio Magdalena - complejo Canal del Dique - sistema lagunar Ciénaga Grande de Santa Marta. La información geográfica de esta unidad costera regional se interpretó de acuerdo con los parámetros definidos en el modelo SHIELP para ambientes costeros. Se delimitaron 154 polígonos en el área de estudio, de acuerdo con las 40 configuraciones litorales identificadas. Como resultado, 13 mapas cartográficos representan esta área, con los niveles de susceptibilidad atribuidos a cada configuración para las 52 intervenciones potencialmente impactantes. A fin de ilustrar la aplicabilidad del modelo, se presentan cuatro escenarios para discriminar las 23 intervenciones por instrumento de manejo ambiental (screening) y para definir los requerimientos de información sobre procesos geomorfológicos (scoping). De esta manera el modelo SHIELP especifica el instrumento de licenciamiento ambiental para las intervenciones humanas y el alcance correspondiente del estudio técnico requerido, dadas las características de su interacción con la configuración gemorfológica. Las Conclusiones Generales documentan reflexiones y recomendaciones al Sistema Nacional Ambiental colombiano (SINA) para implementar los resultados de esta investigación. Además, este trabajo abre una perspectiva amplia para futuras investigaciones en el enfoque de la susceptibilidad al efecto de las intervenciones humanas. El modelo SHIELP para entornos costeros se puede replicar en diversas geografías para articular progresivamente una base de datos nacional de susceptibilidad costera. Asimismo, el esquema metodológico presentado puede aplicarse en diferentes tipos de entornos, distintos de la zona costera. La ampliación de este enfoque de susceptibilidad geomorfológica sobre la variedad de ecosistemas tropicales, establecería el camino para una transición exitosa desde la actual concepción antropocéntrica y orientada a la fragmentación, hacia una aproximación del manejo basado en los ecosistemas. ; Important flaws in the environmental licensing procedures in Colombia are directly related to the generalized degradation of its coastal fringes and littoral zones. These areas are severely affected by human interventions that interfere with natural processes and severely modify their sedimentary balances, geomorphological contexts, and physical-biotic conditions. Among many other examples, the following stand out: a) the widespread erosion and destruction of beaches and dunes in the Magdalena River delta, associated with the construction of the Bocas de Ceniza jetties; b) the drastic modification of the hydrodynamics of the littorals at the Atlantic and Magdalena departments due to linear infrastructure projects; c) the hyper-salinization and loss of more than 30,000 hectares of mangrove in the lagoon complex of the Ciénaga Grande de Santa Marta (CGSM) due to the expansion of the agricultural frontier and linear infrastructure projects; d) the accelerated retreat of beaches and cliffs in the southern Caribbean, due to activities such as deforestation, beach material extraction, and disordered and chaotic construction of nearly 500 rigid shore protection works; and e) the salinization of more than 10,000 hectares of freshwater marshes in the Bay of Cispatá as a consequence of the induced formation of the new delta of Tinajones. In this sense, the location of infrastructure in geological and geomorphologically unstable lands, affected by phenomena such as coastal subsidence and mud diapirism, poses first order natural threats and risks. This is a palpable panorama in the present and future of urban and rural areas of cities such as Barranquilla, Cartagena, Arboletes and Necoclí, all of them with future developments (industry, ports, urban development) of the greatest importance. The environmental costs associated with such interventions are incalculable, not counting the existence of numerous other examples, which demonstrate among other factors an insufficient acknowledgment to geomorphology in the evaluation, monitoring, and control of human interventions in the marine-coastal environment. These environmental management functions in Colombia are provided through the environmental licensing procedure, which rests upon national and regional authorities according to Law 99 of 1993. In the above context, the following research questions arise:  What elements of the environmental licensing of interventions in coastal environments can be improved, giving priority to the particular geomorphological contexts of the intervention zones?  How has the regulatory system evolved in Colombia with respect to human interventions on coastal environments?  What technical improvements can be made to the Colombian regulatory framework to guide the evaluation, monitoring, and control of human interventions from the geomorphological approach of susceptibility? This research work examines the environmental regulatory framework that currently governs Colombian coastal zones, through two geographic levels. At the first macro level, human interventions 16 are characterized and analyzed on the continental Caribbean coast, a region that represents a significant sample of the Colombian context due to its higher levels of human occupation and consequent anthropogenic disturbances. At a second level, in greater detail, the conceptual and methodological approach resulting from this research is defined and illustrated, with the demonstration in one of the coastal environmental units defined by decree 1120 of 2013 for integrated coastal management. To answer the questions raised, Chapter I briefly introduces the historical geomorphological evolution of the Colombian coastlines since the end of the XVIII century. The complex geology and geomorphology of the Caribbean and Pacific coasts of Colombia are evident in this "appetizer", in which low-relief deltaic islands and mangroves contrast with steep rocky reliefs, cliffs and wide emerged and submerged coastal platforms. The historical evolution of the Colombian littorals involves changes in the coastline estimated in hundreds of meters, at maximum rates of 40 meters a year (Punta Rey, Arboletes, Tumaco Bay), and land losses and gains of the order of tens of square kilometers (Ciénaga de Mallorquín, Isla Cascajo, Tinajorenas Delta - Cispatá, Bay, Urabá Gulf, San Juan and Patía river deltas). These cases reflect drastic variations in the sediment balances of the coast, many of them caused or heavily influenced by human actions, such as navigation infrastructure, modification of river courses and coastal protection works. Chapter II identifies the geomorphological perspective in the environmental licensing of coastal interventions in Colombia, based on its comparison with the regulatory frameworks of Italy, Spain, and Cuba. The interviews and documentary reviews highlighted 59 interventions associated with human uses and activities in the coastal zones, whose compulsory nature for the licensing varies among countries. The natural geomorphological processes were also analyzed within the technical criteria included in the official guidelines for environmental studies. It is concluded that, despite the worldwide acceptance of environmental impact assessments through a licensing procedure, their application in coastal environments is still very diverse and limited in terms of the pertinence of the geomorphological processes that configures the coast. Therefore, seven good practices for the evaluation and control of anthropogenic impacts in the coastal zone are underlined, and a new process-oriented approach is introduced for environmental licensing procedures. In Chapter III, an inventory and characterization of human interventions on the continental coast of the Colombian Caribbean are documented, to establish a regional baseline. Based on images from Google Earth, a total of 2,742 works and activities were located, representing 29 different types of human interventions. This inventory was complemented with an evaluation of the general impact of each intervention, based on four attributes of its geomorphological effects, namely, extension, intensity, reversibility, and persistence. The three most common types of human interventions (low-density settlements, groins and luxury settlements with dock) were also the ones with the higher environmental impact. However, some interventions (e.g., high-density settlements or road infrastructure) had higher environmental impact values than more frequent ones. 17 Based on this exhaustive analysis of the Colombian Caribbean, Chapter IV evaluates the national environmental regulatory framework applicable to coastal areas. It evidences that the licensing procedure in Colombia currently regulates only four of the ten types of interventions with greater effect in the Colombian coastal zones. Also, the number of works and activities covered in each new legislative reform consistently decreased over time. In addition, three policy implications were extracted for coastal and ocean planning, related to a) the geographic diversity of tropical coastal zones; b) the need for territorial carrying capacity instruments and; c) the lack of articulation of territorial planning instruments. The conclusions identify an important gap between technical and political decision making in the environmental regulatory framework of Colombia, which stresses the need for the design of novel methods to assess the breadth and length of geomorphological dynamics in an environmental management context. Therefore, the previous chapters highlight three important deficiencies in Colombia, with respect to the environmental management of human interventions in coastal areas: 1) the absence of a strategy to determine interventions that require an environmental licensing procedure (screening); 2) a poor definition of the scope of environmental studies through relevant information requirements (scoping) and; 3) the disarticulation of environmental management instruments, such as territorial planning and environmental licenses. All these elements ratify that the environmental regulatory framework in Colombia has been insufficient to date to manage the anthropogenic impact in coastal environments due to the unawareness of the natural susceptibility to the effect of human interventions. In this work, the susceptibility is defined as the predisposition of an environmental unit (socio-natural system) to experience changes or affectation due to the introduction of human interventions. In order to propose improvements to the Colombian environmental system, Chapter V establishes a new conceptual and methodological approach to guide the evaluation, monitoring, and control of human impacts from a geomorphological perspective. This novel product has been called Susceptibility to Human Interventions for Environmental Licensing Purposes (SHIELP). The architecture of this model has three components, which are particular to a kind of environment, namely, geomorphological processes, geomorphological configurations and potentially impacting human interventions. Each of these components is translated into a variable by means of expert qualifications along with a fuzzy logic computation strategy. Therefore, the expert-diffuse system SHIELP qualifies the susceptibility of a distinctive landform to the effects of a characteristic type of human intervention, through the estimated perturbation in each geomorphological process that configures the kind of environment under study. As a demonstration, this chapter also documents the design of the expert-diffuse system for coastal environments, drafted from research workshops with members of the marine and coastal research institute INVEMAR (In Spanish: Instituto de Investigaciones Marinas y Costeras "José Benito Vives de Andréis"). The role of this institute as an official adviser to the environmental authorities in matters of impact assessment demonstrates its relevance to support the expert-knowledge base of the model. 18 As a consequence, the SHIELP model was applied with the parameters established for coastal environments, resulting in a database of susceptibility values for 4,524 interactions (littoral configuration vs intervention). The real applicability of this exercise corresponds to the translation of this database into a technical criterion to improve the Colombian regulatory framework. On the one hand, five susceptibility ranges were linked to five differentiated instruments, two of which articulate environmental licensing with territorial plans, while the others differentiate the pertinent degree of licensing for human interventions according to location properties (screening). On the other hand, the differentiated instruments were also combined with four degrees of information requirements for the definition of the scope in the respective environmental studies (scoping). In this way, the susceptibility value of a given intervention in a given configuration (interaction) would fit a percentile range that places its environmental control in a territorial competence (regional or national), and through a specific licensing instrument, with differentiated information requirements for the baseline definition. Finally, the operation of the SHIELP model was also demonstrated with a case study: the environmental coastal unit Magdalena River - Canal del Dique complex - Ciénaga Grande de Santa Marta lagoon system. The geographic information of this regional coastal unit was interpreted according to the parameters defined in the SHIELP model for coastal environments. 154 polygons were delimited in the study area, according to the 40 coastal configurations identified. As a result, 13 cartographic maps represent this area, with the levels of susceptibility attributed to each configuration for the 52 potentially impacting interventions. In order to illustrate the applicability of the model, four scenarios are presented to discriminate interventions by environmental management instrument (screening) and to define information requirements on geomorphological processes (scoping). In this way, the SHIELP model specifies the environmental licensing instrument for human interventions and the corresponding scope of the technical study, given the characteristics of its interaction with the geomorphological configuration. The Overall Conclusions document reflections and recommendations to the Colombian national environmental system – SINA (in Spanish: Sistema Nacional Ambiental) to implement the results of this research. In addition, this work opens a broad perspective for future research in the approach of susceptibility to the effect of human interventions. The SHIELP model for coastal environments can be replicated in different geographies to progressively articulate a national database of coastal susceptibility. Also, the presented methodological scheme can be applied in different kinds of environments, other than the coastal zone. The extension of this approach of geomorphological susceptibility to the variety of tropical ecosystems would set the path for a successful transition from the current anthropocentric and fragmentation-oriented conception towards an ecosystem-based management approach.

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Bhimanahalli-1 Microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and the physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 369 ha in Yadgir taluk & district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought-prone with an average annual rainfall of 866 mm, of which about 652 mm is received during south-west monsoon, 138 mm during north-east and the remaining 76 mm during the rest of the year. An area of 320 ha in the microwatershed is covered by soils, 49 ha by others (habitation and water body). The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 3 soil series and 3 soil phases (management units) and 2 land management units.  The length of crop growing period is about 120-150 days starting from 1st week of June to 4th week of October.  From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated.  Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 320 m grid interval.  Land suitability for growing 26 major agricultural and horticultural crops was assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated.  Entire area in the microwatershed is suitable for agriculture.  Entire area of the microwatershed has soils that are very deep (>150 cm).  Entire area in the microwatershed has clayey soils at the surface.  Entire area in the microwatershed is non gravelly (200 mm/m) in available water capacity.  Entire area in the microwatershed has very gently sloping (1-3% slope) lands.  Entire area in the microwatershed is moderately (e2) eroded.  An area of about 78 per cent soils are slightly to moderately alkaline (pH 7.3-8.4) in soil reaction and about 9 per cent soils are strongly alkaline (8.4 - 9.0).  The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of the soils in the microwatershed is non saline (0.75).  About 31 per cent area is low in available phosphorus, 52 per area is medium (23-57 kg/ha) and 4 per cent is high (>57 kg/ha).  About 337 kg/ha).  Available sulphur is medium (10 -20 ppm) in an area of about 20 ppm) in 87 per cent area of the microwatershed.  Available boron is low (1.0 ppm) in 47 per cent area.  Available iron is sufficient (>4.5 ppm) in 83 per cent area and deficient in 3 per cent area of the microwatershed.  Available manganese and copper are sufficient in all the soils of the microwatershed.  Available zinc is deficient (0.6 ppm) in 74 per cent area of the microwatershed.  The land suitability for 26 major crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the Microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 320(87) - Sapota - - Maize - 320(87) Pomegranate - 320(87) Bajra - 320(87) Musambi 78(21) 242(66) Groundnut - - Lime 78(21) 242(66) Sunflower 78(21) 242(66) Amla 242(66) 78(21) Redgram - 204(55) Cashew - - Bengal gram 320 (87) - Jackfruit - - Cotton 320(87) - Jamun - 320(87) Chilli - 320 (87) Custard apple 320(87) - Tomato 78(21) - Tamarind - 320(87) Drumstick - 320(87) Mulberry - - Mango - - Marigold - 320(87) Guava - - Chrysanthemum - 320(87)  Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested to these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. This would help in not only supplementing the farm income but also provide fodder and fuel and generate lot of biomass which would help in maintaining an ecological balance and also contribute to mitigating the climate change. SILENT FINDINGS OF THE STUDY  The results indicated that 35 farmers were sampled in Bhimanahalli-1 microwatershed among them 7 (20%) were marginal farmers, 9 (25.71%) were small farmers, 7 (20%) were semi medium farmers, 6 (17.14%) was medium farmers and 1 (2.86%) were large farmers. Apart from these 5 landless farmers were also interviewed for the survey.  The data indicated that there were 95 (61.69%) men and 59 (38.31%) were women among the sampled households. The average family size of marginal farmers was 4, small farmer was 4, semi medium farmer was 4, medium farmers were 5, large farmers were 5 and for landless farmers it was 4.  The data indicated that 24 (15.58%) people were in 0-15 years of age, 46 (46.10%) were in 16-35 years of age, 50 (32.47 %) were in 36-60 years of age and 9 (5.84%) were above 61 years of age.  The results indicated that the Bhimanahalli-1had 43.51 per cent illiterates, 16.88 per cent of them had primary school education, 7.79 per cent of them had middle school education, 15.58 per cent of them had high school education, 7.14 per cent of them had PUC education, 0.65 per cent of them had ITI and 3.90 per cent of them had degree education. The results indicated that, 85.71 per cent of households practicing agriculture, 11.43 per cent of the household heads were general labours labourers and 5.71 per cent were in private services.  The results indicated that agriculture was the major occupation for 61.04 per cent of the household members, 6.49 per cent were general labours, 1.30 per cent of them were in private sector, 17.53 per cent of them were students and 9.09 per cent were housewives. In case of landless households 55.56 per cent were agricultural general labour, 5.56 per cent were in private service and 22.22 per cent were students. In case of marginal farmers 89.66 per cent were agriculturist and 3.45 percent were in private sector, students and house wife respectively. In case of small farmers, 61.54 per cent of the household members were practicing agriculture and 12.82 per cent of them were students. In case of semi medium farmers 70.97 per cent of the household members were practicing agriculture and 22.58 per cent of them were students. In case of medium farmers, 62.50 per cent of the household members were performing agriculture and 21.88 per cent of them were students. In case of large farmers 40 per cent of the household members were performing agriculture and 60 per cent of them were students.  The result showed that 1.95 per cent of them participated in self help groups and 98.05 per cent of them have not participated in any local institutions. Small farmers and semi medium farmers were found to have no participation in any local institutions. Small farmers and semi medium farmers were found to participate in one or the other local institutions. 2  The results indicated that 45.71 per cent of the households possess Katcha house, 20 per cent of them possess Pucca house, 28.57 per cent of them possess Semi Pacca house and 5.71 per cent of them possess thatched house.  The results showed that 100 per cent of the households possess TV, 11.43 per cent of the households possess Mixer grinder, 11.43 per cent of the households possess motor cycle, 80 per cent of the households possess mobile phones and 2.86 per cent of the households possess refrigerator and car respectively.  The results showed that the average value of television was Rs.9142, mixer grinder was Rs.2250, refrigerator Rs.9000, motor cycle was Rs.60750, Car Rs.400000 and mobile phone was Rs.2006.  Results showed 22.86 per cent of the households possess plough and bullock cart respectively, 2.86 per cent of them possess power tiller, 8.57 per cent of the households possess sprayer and tractor correspondingly and 5.71 per cent of the households possess weeder.  The results showed that the average value of plough was Rs.4625; the average value of bullock cart was Rs. 23625, the average value of power tiller Rs. 25000, the average value of tractor Rs. 800000, the average value of Sprayer Rs.4666 and the average value of weeder Rs. 75.  The results indicated that, 22.86 per cent of the households possess bullocks, 11.43 per cent of the households possess local cow, 2.86 per cent of the households possess sheep and 8.57 per cent of the households possess poultry birds. In case of small farmers, 11.11 per cent of households possess bullock. In case of semi medium farmers, 28.57 per cent of the households possess bullock, 14.29 per cent possess both local cow and sheep and 28.57 per cent of the households possess poultry birds. In case of medium farmers 50 of the households possess bullocks, 16.67 of the households possess local cow and 16.67 of the households possess poultry birds.  The results indicated that, average own labour men available in the micro watershed was 1.78, average own labour (women) available was 1.28, average hired labour (men) available was 12.69 and average hired labour (women) available was 13.50. In case of marginal farmers, average own labour men and women available was 1.86, average hired labour (men) was 6.43 and average hired labour (women) available was 6.57. In case of small farmers, average own labour men available was 1.89, average own labour (women) was 1.22, average hired labour (men) was 9.56 and average hired labour (women) available was 11.22. In case of semi medium farmers, average own labour men available was 1.71, average own labour (women) was 1.29, average hired labour (men) was 19.29 and average hired labour (women) available was 20. In medium farmers average own labour men available was 2.33, average own labour (women) was 1.17, average hired labour (men) was 15 and average hired labour (women) 3 available was 15.83. In large farmers average own labour men and women available was 1, average hired labour (men) and hired (women) was 50 respectively.  The results indicated that, 65.71 per cent of the household opined that hired labour was adequate and 20 per cent of the farmers have opined that the hired labour was inadequate.  The results indicated that, 2 person was migrated from micro watershed that belonged to marginal farmer category. Total migration in the micro watershed was only 1.30 per cent.  The results indicated that, people have migrated on an average of 1200 Kms and average duration was 6 months. Marginal farmers have migrated 1200 kms and on an average for 6 months.  The results indicated that, job/work was the only reason for migration for all the migrants.  The results indicated that, households of the Bhimanahalli-1 micro-watershed possess 24.91 ha (49.53%) of dry land and 25.38 ha (50.47%) of irrigated land. Marginal farmers possess 4.46 ha (97.52 %) of dry land and 0.11 ha (2.48%) of irrigated land. Small farmers possess 11.70 ha (92.69%) of dry land and 0.92 ha (7.31 %) of irrigated land. Semi medium farmers possess 8.74 ha (62.85 %) of dry land and 5.17ha (37.15 %) of irrigated land. Medium farmers possess 13.92 ha (100%) of irrigated land and large farmer possess 5.26 ha (100 %) irrigated land.  The results indicated that, the average value of dry land was Rs. 367248.95 and average value of irrigated was Rs. 378061.23. In case of marginal famers, the average land value was Rs. 537931.04 for dry land and Rs. 1764285.71 for irrigated land. In case of small famers, the average land value was Rs. 409958.51 for dry land Rs. 650000.01 for irrigated land. In case of semi medium famers, the average land value was Rs. 222986.11 for dry land and Rs. 464213.00 for irrigated land. In case of medium famers, the average land value was Rs.344751.38for irrigated land and in case of large farmers Rs. 304000 for irrigated land.  The results indicated that, there were 2 functioning bore wells in the micro watershed. The results indicated that, canal was the major irrigation source for 28.57 per cent of the farmers and bore well was the source for irrigation which was found to be 5.71 per cent.  The results indicated that on an average the depth of the bore well was 6.53 meters.  The results indicated that, in case of marginal farmers there was 0.11 ha of irrigated land, in case of small farmers there was 0.92 ha of irrigated land, semi medium farmers were having 5.17 ha of irrigated land and medium farmers were having 6.88 ha of irrigated land. 4  The results indicated that, farmers have grown cotton (11.65 ha), groundnut (1.62 ha), Paddy (19.57 ha), Red gram (5.71 ha) and Sorghum (4.57 ha) in kharif season. Farmers have grown 6.11 ha of cotton and 0.97 ha of sorghum in Rabi season.  Marginal farmers have grown cotton, paddy and sorghum. Small farmers have grown cotton, Paddy, Red gram and Sorghum. Similarly semi medium farmers have grown cotton, groundnut, paddy, redgram and sorghum. Medium farmers have grown cotton and paddy and large farmers grown only paddy.  The results indicated that, the cropping intensity in Bhimanahalli-1 microwatershed was found to be 99.81 per cent. In case of Marginal farmers, small farmers, semi medium farmers and large farmers it was 100 per cent and in case of medium farmers it was 99.33 per cent.  The results indicated that, 31.43 per cent of the households have bank account and 11.43 per cent of savings. Among marginal farmers 42.86 percent of them possess bank account and 28.57 per cent of them possess savings. 33.33 per cent of small farmers possess bank account and 11.11 per cent of savings. Semi medium farmers possess 57.14 per cent of bank account and 14.29 per cent of savings accounts and large farmers possess 100 per cent of bank account.  The results indicated that, 20 per cent of landless, 14.29 per cent of marginal, 22.22 per cent of small, 14.29 per cent semi medium, 33 per cent of medium farmers and 100 per cent of medium farmers have borrowed credit from different sources.  The results indicated that, 18.18 per cent have availed loan in cooperative bank, 45.45 per cent have availed loan in Grameena bank and 9.09 per cent have availed loan in SHGs/CBOs.  The results indicated that, landless, marginal, small, semi medium, medium and large have availed Rs.100000, Rs. 300000, Rs.50000, Rs.53333.33, Rs.100000 and Rs. 200000 respectively. Overall average credit amount availed by households in the micro watershed is 123636.36.  The results indicated that, 100 per cent of the households have borrowed loan for agriculture production.  The results indicated that, 100 percent of loan was taken from private credit was for construction-house, construction-cattle shed.  Results indicated that 28.57 per cent of the households have partially paid their institutional loan and 71.43 per cent of the households have unpaid their institutional loan.  Results indicated that 100 percent of the households have unpaid their private credit loan.  Results indicated that 28.57 per cent of the farmers opined that the credit, which was taken from various institutes was helped them to perform timely agricultural 5 operations and also opined that institutes, they were forced to sell the produce at low price to repay loan in time respectively.  The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for paddy was Rs. 122743.07. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 135947.83. The net income from paddy cultivation was Rs. 13204.76. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.11.  The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for sorghum was Rs. 26995.54. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 46808.77. The net income from sorghum cultivation was Rs. 19813.23. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.73.  The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for groundnut was Rs. 69047.79. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 62367.50. The net income from groundnut cultivation was Rs. -6680.29. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.9.  The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for redgram was Rs. 16037.01. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 41055.29. The net income from redgram cultivation was Rs. 25018.28. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:2.56.  The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for cotton was Rs. 35099.26. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 69232.72. The net income from cotton cultivation was Rs. 34133.46. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.97.  The results indicated that, 17.14 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder and green fodder was adequate respectively.  The results indicated that the average income from wage Rs.51714.29, agriculture Rs. 110028.57, non farm income Rs. 42.86 and goat farming was Rs. 1428.57.  The results indicated that the average expenditure from wage was Rs. 8171.43 and agriculture was Rs. 25728.57. On an average the expenditure was found Rs.5434.57.  The results indicated that, sampled households have grown 3 coconut trees and 3 Mango trees in their field.  The results indicated that, households have planted 2 Eucalyptus, 109 Neem tree and 4 Banyan tree in the field.  The results indicated that, households have an average investment capacity of Rs.3285.17 for land development. Small farmers have an average investment capacity of Rs.1111.11 for land development. Semi medium households have an average investment capacity Rs.15000 for land development.  The results indicated that for 8.57 per cent of the households were dependent on loan from bank for land development. 6  The results indicated that, cotton, Groundnut, Red Gram, and sorghum were sold to the extent of 100 per cent and Paddy was sold to the extent of 82.93 per cent.  The results indicated that, 28.57 percent of the households have sold their produce to agents/ traders, 54.29 percent of the households sold their produce in local/village merchant and 2.86 per cent of the households sold their produce to regulated market.  The results indicated that 11.43 per cent of the households have used cart as a mode of transport and 74.29 per cent have used tractor.  The results indicated that, 11.43 per cent of the households have experienced the soil and water erosion problems i.e. 22.22 percent of small farmers, 14.29 percent semi medium farmers and 16.67 per cent of medium farmers.  The results indicated that, 100 per cent of the households have shown interest in soil testing i.e. 100 per cent of marginal farmers, small farmers, semi medium farmers and medium farmers have showed interest in soil testing respectively.  The results indicated that, 8.57 per cent of the households have adopted field bunding, i.e. 28.57 per cent of marginal farmers, 14.29 per cent of semi medium farmers have adopted field bunding.  The results indicated that, 100 per cent of the households who adopted field bunding opined that bunds are good.  The results indicated that 8.57 per cent of the soil conservation structures are constructed by their own.  The results indicated that, 94.29 percent used fire wood as a source of fuel and 11.43 percent of the households used LPG as a source of fuel.  The results indicated that, piped supply was the source for drinking water for 85.71 per cent of the households, 8.57 per cent of the households were using bore well and 5.71 per cent of the households were using lake/tank as a source of drinking water.  The results indicated that, electricity was the major source of light which was found to be 100 per cent.  The results indicated that, 54.29 per cent of the households possess sanitary toilet i.e. 80 per cent of landless, 28.57 per cent of marginal, 66.67 per cent of small, 28.57 per cent of semi medium, 66.67 per cent of medium and 100 per cent of the large farmers had sanitary toilet facility.  The results indicated that, 91.43 per cent of the sampled household's possessed BPL card, 5.71 per cent of the sampled household's possessed APL card and 2.86 per cent of the sampled households not possessed BPL card.  The results indicated that, 82.86 per cent of the households participated in NREGA programme which included 80 per cent of the landless, 71.43 percent of the marginal, 88.89 per cent of the small, 71.43 per cent of the semi medium, 100 percent of the medium farmers and 100 per cent of large farmers. 7  The results indicated that, cereals, pulses, oilseeds, fruits, milk, and meat were adequate for 97.14 per cent, 80 per cent, 71.43 per cent, 57.14 per cent, 94.29 per cent and 97.14 per cent of the households respectively. Fruits and eggs were adequate for 100 per cent of the households correspondingly.  The results indicated that, cereals were inadequate for 2.86, pulses were inadequate for 20 per cent, oilseeds were inadequate for 28.57 per cent, vegetables were inadequate for 2.86 per cent, fruits were inadequate for 42.86 per cent, milk was inadequate 5.71 per cent, eggs were inadequate for 2.86 per cent and meat was inadequate for 5.71 per cent of the households.  The results indicated that, Lower fertility status of the soil was the constraint experienced by 91.43 per cent of the households, wild animal menace on farm field (80%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (62.86%), inadequacy of irrigation water (57.14%), high cost of Fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (80%), high rate of interest on credit (82.86%), low price for the agricultural commodities (88.57%), lack of marketing facilities in the area (85.71%), inadequate extension services (40%) and lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (77.14%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Abbagiri microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and these physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the Microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 721 ha in Koppal taluk and district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought - prone with an average annual rainfall of 662 mm, of which about 424 mm is received during south –west monsoon, 161 mm during north-east and the remaining 77 mm during the rest of the year. An area of about 86 per cent is covered by soils, 6 per cent by rock out crops,150 cm).  An area of about 9 per cent has sandy surface, 64 per cent loamy soils and 13 per cent has clayey soils at the surface.  About 27 per cent of the area has non-gravelly (200mm/m).  An area of about 5 per cent has nearly level (0-1%) lands, 81 per cent very gently sloping (1-3%) lands and 0.75%) in 75 per cent area of the soils.  Available phosphorus is low (57 kg/ha) in 43 per cent of the soils.  Available potassium is low (337 kg/ha) in 12 per cent of the soils.  Available sulphur is low (4.5 ppm) in 55 per cent of the area.  Available zinc is deficient (0.6 ppm) in 39 per cent of the area.  Available manganese and copper are sufficient in the entire area.  The land suitability for 28 major agricultural and horticultural crops grown in the microwatershed was assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (class S1) and moderately suitable (class S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price, and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 9 (1) 140(19) Pomegranate - 174(24) Maize 9 (1) 140(19) Guava - 147(20) Bajra 9 (1) 275(38) Jackfruit - 147(20) Redgram - 30(4) Jamun - 117(16) Bengal gram 9(1) 158 (22) Musambi - 174 (24) Groundnut - 325 (45) Lime - 174 (24) Sunflower - 57(8) Cashew - 309(43) Cotton - 149 (20) Custard apple - 562 (78) Chilli - 122(17) Amla - 562(78) Tomato 9(1) 113(15) Tamarind 38(5) Drumstick - 143 (20) Marigold - 122(20) Mulbery - 470(65) Chrysanthemum - 122(20) Mango - - Jasmine - 122 (17) Sapota - 147(20) Crossandra - 149(20) Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the 7 identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital to crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested to these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. This would help in supplementing the farm income, provide fodder and fuel, and generate lot of biomass which in turn would help in maintaining the ecological balance and contribute to mitigating the climate change. Results indicated that 34 farmers were sampled in Abbagiri micro watershed among them 7 (20.59%) were marginal farmers, 15 (44.12 %) were small farmers, 4 (11.76 %) were semi medium farmers, 2 (5.88%) were medium farmers, 1(2.94%) was large farmer and 5 (14.71 %) landless farmers were also interviewed for the survey.  The data indicated that there were 142 population households were there in the studied micro watershed. Among them 79 (55.63%) men and 63 (44.37 %) were women. The average family size of landless was 3, marginal farmers and small farmers were 4, semi medium and medium farmers were 5 and large farmer was 10. On an average the family size was 4.  The data indicated that 20 (14.08%) people were in 0-15 years of age, 73 (51.41 %) were in 16-35 years of age, 36 (25.35 %) were in 36-60 years of age and 13 (9.15 %) were above 61 years of age.  The results indicated that the Abbagiri had 40.14 per cent illiterates, 0.70 per cent were functional literates, 26.06 per cent of them had primary school education, 10.56 per cent of them had both middle school, 14.79 per cent them had high school education, 4.93 per cent of them had PUC education, 0.70 per cent of them had degree education and 2.11 per cent them had others.  The results indicated that, 55.88 per cent of households practicing agriculture, 35.29 per cent of the household heads were agricultural labour and 8.82 per cent of the household heads were general labour.  The results indicated that agriculture was the major occupation for 45.07 per cent of the household members, 30.99 per cent were agricultural labourers, 7.75 per cent were general labours, 0.70 percent were in private sector, 12.68 per cent of them were students and 2.86 per cent of them were children. In case of landless households 14.29 per cent were agricultural labours, 64.29 per cent were general labourers and 21.43 per cent were students. In case of marginal farmers 39.29 per cent were both agriculturist and agricultural labour, 3.57 per cent of both were in private and 14.29 per cent were students. In case of small farmers 56.14 per cent of them were agriculturist, 22.81 per cent of them were agriculture labour, 3.51 per cent were general labour and 14.04 per cent of them were students. In case of semi medium farmers 27.27 per cent of the family members were agriculturist, 54.55 per cent were agriculture labour and 13.64 per cent of them were students. In case of medium farmers 45.45 per cent of the family members were agriculturist and 54.55 per cent of them were agriculture labours. In large farmers 100 per cent of them were doing agriculture.  The results showed 100 per cent of the farmers have not participated in any local institutions. 2  The results indicated that 50 per cent of the households possess Katcha house, 17.65 per cent of the households possess Pucca house and 32.35 per cent of them possess Thatched house.  The results showed that, 82.35 per cent of the households possess TV, 67.65 per cent of the households possess Mixer grinder, 23.53 per cent of the households possess bicycle, 35.29 per cent of the households possess motor cycle, 2.94 per cent of the households possess Auto and 91.18 per cent of the households possess mobile phones.  The results showed that the average value of television was Rs. 7178, mixer grinder was Rs.1630, bicycle was Rs.1375, motor cycle was Rs.30416, Auto was Rs. 300000 and mobile phone was Rs.1537.  Results showed about 23.53 per cent of the households possess bullock cart, 44.12 per cent of them possess plough, 2.94 per cent of the households possess tractor, 32.35 per cent of the households possess sprayer, 91.18 per cent of the households possess weeder, 2.94 per cent of the households possess harvester and 11.76 per cent of the households possess chaff cutter.  The results showed that the average value of bullock cart was Rs.17975; the average value of plough was Rs. 929, the average value of tractor was Rs. 300000, the average value of sprayer was Rs. 3125, the average value of weeder was Rs. 64, the average value of harvester was Rs. 48000 and the average value of chaff cutter was Rs. 3000.  The results indicated that, 41.18 per cent of the households possess bullocks, 35.29 per cent of the households possess local cow, 8.82 per cent of the households possess sheep and 2.94 per cent of the households possess goat.  The data indicated that in case of marginal farmers, 28.57 per cent of the households possess bullock and 42.86 per cent of household possess local cow. In case of small farmers, 46.67 per cent of households possess bullock, 26.67 per cent possess local cow, 13.33 per cent of the households possess sheep and 6.67 per cent possess goat. In case of semi medium farmers, 75 per cent of the households possess bullock and 50 per cent possess local cow. In medium farmers 50 per cent of the household possess bullock and 100 per cent of them have possess local cow. In case of large farmers 100 per cent of the farmers have possess bullock, local cow and sheep respectively.  The results indicated that, average own labour men available in the micro watershed was 1.79, average own labour (women) available was 1.61, average hired labour (men) available was 8.34 and average hired labour (women) available was 7.79.  The data showed that in case of marginal farmers, average own labour men available was 1, average own labour (women) was also 1.67, average hired labour (men) was 7.86 and average hired labour (women) available was also 3 7.86. In case of small farmers, average own labour men available was 1.73, average own labour (women) was 1.40, average hired labour (men) was 8.87 and average hired labour (women) available was 8.40. In case of semi medium farmers, average own labour men available was 2.25, average own labour (women) was 1.50, average hired labour (men) was 9.25 and average hired labour (women) available was 6.75. In medium farmers average own labour men available was 2.50, average own labour (women) was 2, average hired labour (men) was 5 and average hired labour (women) available was 5. In large farmers average own labour men available was 4, average own labour (women) was 4, average hired labour (men) was 7 and average hired labour (women) available was 8.  The results indicated that, 85.29 per cent of the household opined that hired labour was adequate.  The results indicated that, households of the Abbagiri micro watershed possess 33.19 ha (51.34 %) of dry land and 31.46 ha (48.66 %) of irrigated land. Marginal farmers possess 4.98 ha (91.11 %) of dry land and 0.49 ha (8.89%) of irrigated land. Small farmers possess 19.29 ha (93.38 %) of dry land and 1.37 ha (6.62 %) of irrigated land. Semi medium farmers possess 2.02 ha (30.94 %) of dry land and 4.52 ha (69.06 %) of irrigated land. Medium farmers possess 6.90 (81%) of dry land and 1.62 ha (19%) of irrigated land. Large farmers possess 23.47 ha (100%) of irrigated land.  The results indicated that, the average value of dry land was Rs. 307,206.44 and average value of irrigated was Rs. 724665.73. In case of marginal famers, the average land value was Rs. 481,951.22 for dry land and Rs. 1,234,999.95 for irrigated land. In case of small famers, the average land value was Rs. 310,952.58 for dry land Rs. 1,023,076.96 for irrigated land. In case of semi medium famers, the average land value was Rs. 296,400 for dry land and Rs. 531,182.79 for irrigated land. In case of medium famers, the average land value was Rs. 173841.64 for dry land and was Rs. 494,000 for irrigated land. In case of large farmers the average land value was Rs. 340068.97 for irrigated land.  The results indicated that, there were 9 functioning bore wells in the micro watershed.  The results indicated that, bore well was the major irrigation source for 26.47 per cent of the farmers.  The results indicated that on an average the depth of the bore well was 22.32 meters.  The results indicated that, in case of small farmers there was 1.37 ha of irrigated land, in case of semi medium farmers there was 3.71 ha of irrigated land, medium farmers were having 1.62 ha of irrigated land and large farmers were having 6.48 ha of irrigated land. On an average there were 13.17 ha of irrigated land. 4  The results indicated that, farmers have grown bajra (8.66 ha), maize (21.52 ha), paddy (2.66 ha), groundnut (4.86 ha), navane (0.88 ha), red gram (1.29 ha) and sunflower (0.81 ha) in kharif season. Also grown groundnut (1.28 ha) in Rabi season. Marginal farmers have grown Maize, Bajra, groundnut and paddy. Small farmers have grown bajra, maize, paddy, navane, red gram and sunflower. Semi medium farmers have grown Maize and groundnut. Medium farmers have grown bajra and maize. Large farmers have grown groundnut and paddy.  The results indicated that, the cropping intensity in Abbagiri micro watershed was found to be 80.20 per cent. In case of marginal, semi medium and large farmers it was 100 per cent, in small farmers the cropping intensity was 87.02 per cent and in medium farmers it was 43.75 per cent.  The results indicated that, 91.50 per cent of the households have bank account and 50 per cent of the households have savings. Among marginal farmers 40 percent of them possess bank account and 20 per cent possess savings. 100 per cent of small farmers possess bank account and 57.14 per cent of them possess savings. Semi medium farmers possess 100 per cent of bank account and 66.67 per cent possess savings. Medium category of farmers possesses 100 per cent of bank account and 50 per cent of them possess savings. 100 per cent of large farmers possess bank account.  The results indicated that, 40 per cent of landless, 57.14 per cent of marginal, 66.67 per cent of small, 25 per cent of semi medium, 50 per cent of medium and 100 per cent of large farmers have borrowed credit from different sources.  The results indicated that, 52.63 per cent have availed loan in commercial bank, 26.13 per cent have availed loan from Grameena bank and 21.05 per cent have availed loan from money lender.  The results indicated that, marginal, small, semi medium, medium and large farmers have availed Rs.152500, Rs. 128000, Rs. 260000, Rs. 360000 and Rs. 300000 respectively. Overall average credit amount availed by households in the micro watershed is 147894.74.  The results indicated that, 89.47 per cent of the households have borrowed loan for agriculture production.  The results indicated that, agriculture production, income generating activities, purchase-vehicle and social functions like marriage reasons were the purpose for which marginal, small and semi medium farmers borrowed loan from private credit. About 25 percent of loan was taken for agriculture production, income generating activities, purchase-vehicle and social functions like marriage respectively.  Results indicated that 10 per cent of the households have repaid their institutional credit partially, 80 percent of the households have unpaid their loan and 10 percent of the households have fully paid their loan. 5  Results indicated that 75 per cent of the households have repaid their private credit partially and 25 percent of the households have unpaid their loan.  The results indicated that 45 per cent of the households were opined that they were helped to perform timely agricultural operations, 25 per cent of farmers opined that higher rate of interest and 5 per cent of them opined that they forced to sell the produce at low price to repay loan in time respectively.  The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for bajra was Rs. 21127.54. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 26854.61. The net income from bajra cultivation was Rs. 5727.07, thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.27.  The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for maize was Rs. 22389.84. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 26497.78. The net income from maize cultivation was Rs. 4107.93. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.18.  The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for paddy was Rs. 47014.73. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 106400.81. The net income from paddy cultivation was Rs. 59386.09. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:2.26.  The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for groundnut was Rs. 46981.45. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 63906.15. The net income from groundnut cultivation was Rs. 16924.70. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.36.  The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for Sunflower was Rs. 31003.53. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 55575.00. The net income from Sunflower cultivation was Rs. 24571.47. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.79.  The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for red gram was Rs. 22829.07. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 16311.32. The net income from red gram cultivation was Rs. -6517.75. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.71.  The results indicated that, 41.18 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate and 29.41 per cent of the households opined that green fodder was adequate.  The table indicated that, in case of landless, the average income from business Rs. 8000 and wage Rs. 52000. In case marginal farmers the average income from service/salary was Rs.8571.43, business was Rs.11428.57, wage was Rs.5000, agriculture was Rs.44471.43 and dairy farm was Rs.3660.71. In small farmers, the average income from service/salary was Rs.11000, wage was Rs.18666.67, agriculture was Rs.43133.33, dairy farm was Rs.533.33 and goat farming was Rs.6000. In semi medium farmers the average income from business was 6 Rs.28750, wage was Rs.10000 and agriculture was Rs.72200. In medium farmers the average income from wage was Rs.9000, agriculture was Rs.67500 and dairy farm was Rs.1500. In case of large farmers the average income from wage was Rs.10000, agriculture was Rs.130000 and goat farming was Rs.60000.  The results indicated that, in case of land less, the average expenditure from business Rs. 20000 and wage Rs. 30000. In marginal farmers, the average expenditure from business was Rs.30000, wage was Rs.1500, agriculture was Rs.23000 and dairy farm was Rs.5250. In small farmers, the average expenditure from service/salary was Rs.32500, wage was Rs.5714.29, agriculture was Rs.20642.86, dairy farm was Rs.333.33 and goat farming was Rs.20000.In semi medium farmers the average expenditure from business was Rs.60000, wage was Rs.5000 and agriculture was Rs.28750. In medium farmers the average expenditure from wage was Rs.2000, agriculture was Rs.27500 and dairy farm was Rs.1000. In case of large farmers the average expenditure from wage was Rs.2000, agriculture was Rs.50000 and goat farming was Rs.5000.  The results indicated that, sampled households have grown 23 coconut trees and 17 mango trees in their field and also planted 2 coconut trees in their back yard.  The results indicated that, households have planted 23 teak trees, 38 neem trees, 3 tamarind tress, 2 pongamia and 4 banyan trees in their field.  The results indicate that, households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 1117.65 for land development, Rs. 294.14 in irrigation facility, Rs.823.53 for improved crop production and Rs.264.71 for improved livestock management.  The result showed that small farmers have an average investment capacity of Rs. 1066.67 for land development, Rs.800 for improved crop production and Rs.200 for improved livestock management. Semi medium farmers have an average investment capacity of Rs. 5500 for land development, Rs. 2500 in irrigation facility, Rs.4000 for improved crop production and Rs.1500 for improved livestock management.  The results indicated that for 14.71 per cent of the households were dependent on loan from the bank for land development, 5.88 per cent of the households were dependent on soft loans for irrigation facility. For improved crop production 5.88 per cent of the households were dependent on own funds and 8.82 per cent of them dependent on soft loan. For improved livestock management 8.82 per cent of the households were dependent on own funds.  The results indicated that, maize and sunflower crops were sold to the extent of 100 per cent. Bajra, groundnut, paddy and red gram were sold to the extent of 90.20 per cent, 93.64 per cent, 90.83 per cent and 71.43 per cent respectively.  The results indicated that, 5.88 percent of the households have sold their produce to agent/traders, 73.53 percent of the households have sold their produce to local/village merchant,14.71 percent of the households sold their produce in 7 regulated markets and 8.82 percent of the households sold their produce to cooperative marketing Society.  The results indicated that 2.94 per cent of the households have used cart as a mode of transport, 55.88 per cent of them have used tractor and 44.12 per cent have used truck.  The results indicated that, 35.29 per cent of the households have experienced the soil and water erosion problems i.e. 42.86 percent of marginal farmers, 33.33 per cent of small farmers, 50 per cent of semi medium farmers, 50 percent of medium farmers and 100 per cent of the large farmers.  The results indicated that, 85.29 per cent of the households have shown interest in soil testing.  The results indicated that, 100 percent used fire wood as a source of fuel.  The results indicated that, piped supply was the major source of drinking water for 97.02 per cent households and 2.94 per cent of them were using bore well for drinking water.  The results indicated that, electricity was the major source of light for 100 per cent of the households.  The results indicated that, 55.88 per cent of the households possess sanitary toilet i.e. 60 per cent of landless, 100 per cent of marginal, semi medium, medium and large farmers and 13.33 small farmers had sanitary toilet facility.  The results indicated that, 97.06 per cent of the sampled households possessed BPL card and 2.94 per cent of the sampled households have not possessed BPL card.  The results indicated that, 47.06 per cent of the households participated in NREGA programme which included 60 per cent of the landless, 14.29 percent of the marginal, 33.33 per cent of the small, 100 per cent of the semi medium, medium and large farmers respectively.  The results indicated that, cereals, pulses, oilseeds, vegetables, fruits , milk, egg and meat were adequate for 94.12 per cent, 67.65 per cent, 23.53 per cent, 44.12 per cent, 47.06 per cent, 52.94 per cent, 64.71 per cent and 50 per cent respectively.  The results indicated that, cereals, pulses, oilseed, vegetables, fruits milk, egg and meat were inadequate for 5.88 per cent, 32.35 per cent, 73.53 per cent, 55.88 per cent, 52.94 per cent, 47.06 per cent,35.29 per cent and 50 per cent of the households.  The results indicated that, 85.29 per cent of the households experienced by lower fertility status of the soil was the constraint and wild animal menace on farm field, frequent incidence of pest and diseases (67.65%), inadequacy of irrigation water (58.82%), high cost of Fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (79.41%), high rate of interest on credit (73.53%), low price for the agricultural 8 commodities (79.41%), lack of marketing facilities in the area (61.76%), inadequate extension services (55.88%), lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (85.29%), less rainfall (8.82%) and Source of Agri-technology information(Newspaper/TV/Mobile) (2.94 %). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Chik Sulikeri microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and these physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 540 ha in Koppal taluk and district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought - prone with an average annual rainfall of 662 mm, of which about 424 mm is received during south–west monsoon, 161 mm during north-east and the remaining 77 mm during the rest of the year. An area of 93 per cent is covered by soils, 5 per cent by rock outcrops and 2 per cent is by water bodies. The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 18 soil series and 35 soil phases (management units) and 8 land management units.  The length of crop growing period is 150 cm).  About 4 per cent area in the microwatershed has sandy soils, 36 per cent area in the microwatershed has loamy soils and 54 per cent clayey soils at the surface.  About 23 per cent area has non-gravelly (200 mm/m) in available water capacity.  About 13 per cent area of the microwatershed has nearly level (0-1% slope) lands, 73 per cent area of the microwatershed has very gently sloping(1-3% slope) lands and 7 per cent area of microwatershed has gently sloping (3-5% slope) lands.  An area of about 52 per cent area is moderately (e2) eroded and about 41 per cent area is slightly (e1) eroded.  An area of about 0.75%) in 15 per cent area.  An area of about 93 per cent is medium (23-57 kg/ha) and 57 kg/ha) in available phosphorus.  An area of about 33 per cent is low (337 kg/ha) in available potassium.  Available sulphur is low (20 ppm) in 5 per cent area of the microwatershed.  Available boron is low (4.5 ppm) and 16 per cent is deficient (1.0 ppm) in available manganese content.  Entire cultivated area is sufficient (>0.2 ppm) in available copper content.  An area of about 25 per cent is deficient (0.6 ppm) in available zinc content.  The land suitability for 31 major crops grown in the microwatershed was assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 24(4) 188(35) Sapota 15(3) 65(12) Maize 15(3) 198(37) Pomegranate 15(3) 97(18) Bajra 37(7) 235(44) Guava 15(3) 65(12) Groundnut 37(7) 227(42) Jackfruit 15(3) 65(12) Sunflower 24(4) 60(11) Jamun - 111(20) Cotton 9(2) 204(38) Musambi 24(4) 88(16) Red gram 15(3) 69(13) Lime 24(4) 88(16) Bengalgram 13(2) 218(40) Cashew 13(2) 52(9) Chilli 15(3) 151(28) Custard apple 59(11) 294(54) Tomato 15(3) 151(28) Amla 59(11) 294(54) Brinjal 36(7) 216(40) Tamarind - 61(11) Onion 36(7) 164(30) Marigold 15(3) 198(37) Bhendi 36(7) 216(40) Chrysanthemum 15(3) 198(37) Drumstick 28(5) 136(25) Jasmine 15(3) 166(31) Mulberry 28(5) 155(29) Crossandra 15(3) 141(26) Mango - 29(5)  Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the 8 identified LMU s by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserves soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested for these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. That would help in supplementing the farm income, provide fodder and fuel, and generate lot of biomass which in turn would help in maintaining the ecological balance and contribute to mitigating the climate change. SALIENT FINDINGS OF THE STUDY  Results indicated that 37 farmers were sampled in Chik Sulikeri micro watershed among them 5(13.51%) were landless, 4 (10.51%) were marginal farmers, 15 (40.54%) were small farmers, 7 (18.92%) were semi medium farmers, 5 (13.51%) were medium farmers and 1 (2.70%) were large farmers.  The data indicated that there were 101(59.06%) men and 70 (40.94%) women among the sampled households. The average family size of landless farmers' was 3, marginal, small, medium and large farmers' was 5b and semi medium farmers' was 6.  The data indicated that, 29 (16.97%) people were in 0-15 years of age, 80 (46.78%) were in 16-35 years of age, 51 (29.82%) were in 36-60 years of age and 11(6.43 %) were above 61 years of age.  The results indicated that Chik Sulikeri had 37.43 per cent illiterates, 44.44 per cent of them had primary school education, 1.17 per cent of them had middle school education, 6.43 per cent of them had high school education, 5.26 per cent of them had PUC education, 1.17 per cent of them did diploma, 2.34 per cent of them had degree education and 1.75 persons were doing others.  The results indicate that, 91.89 per cent of households practicing agriculture and 8.11 per cent of the households were agricultural laborers.  The results indicate that agriculture was the major occupation for 25.73 per cent of the household members, 51.46 per cent were agricultural laborers, 20.47 per cent were students and 1.17 housewives and children. In case of landless farmers, 21.43 per cent were doing agriculture, 64.29 per cent were agricultural laborers, and 14.29 per cent were housewives. In case of marginal farmers 26.32 per cent were agriculturists, 31.58 per cent were agricultural laborers and 36.84 per cent were students. In case of small farmers, 28.99 per cent were agriculturists, 53.62 per cent were agricultural laborers and 17.39 per cent were students. In case of semi medium farmers, 25.64 per cent were agriculturists, 48.72 per cent were agricultural laborer and 23.08 per cent were students. In case of medium farmers, 20 per cent were agriculturists, another 60 per cent were agricultural laborers and 20 per cent were students. In large farmers 20 per cent were agriculturists, another 40 per cent were agricultural laborers and 40 per cent were students.  The results show that 100 per cent of the populations in the micro watershed have not participated in any local institutions.  The results indicate that 13.51 per cent of the households possess thatched house, 75.68 per cent of the households possess Katcha house and 10.81 per cent of them possess Pucca house.  The results shows that 89.19 per cent of the households possess TV, 67.57 per cent of the households possess Mixer grinder, 32.43 per cent of the households possess 2 bicycle, 37.84 per cent of the households possess motor cycle, and 97.30 per cent of the households possess mobile phones.  The results showed that the average value of television was Rs.4151, mixer grinder was Rs.1396, motor cycle was Rs.1500 and mobile phone was Rs.31285 and mobile was Rs.1472.  The data showed that, about 10.81 per cent of the households possess bullock cart, 18.92 per cent of them possess plough and sprayer, 94.59 per cent of them possess weeder and 2.70 per cent of them possess harvester and chaff cutter respectively.  The results show that the average value of bullock cart was Rs.18250, plough was Rs.1250, the average value of weeder was Rs. 23, the average value of sprayer was Rs.4571, the average value of harvester was Rs.45000 and the average value of chaff cutter Rs.3000.  The results indicate that, 16.22 per cent of the households possess bullocks, 24.32 per cent of the households possess local cow and 2.70 per cent of the households possess buffalo and sheep respectively. In case of marginal households, 25per cent possess local cow. Among small farmers, 33.33 per cent of the households possess bullock and 26.67 per cent possess local cow. In case of semi medium farmers, 14.29 per cent of households possess bullock, 28.57 per cent of households possess local cow and 14.29 per cent of households possess buffalo. In medium farmers 20 per cent local cow and in large farmers 100 per cent of the household possess local cow.  The results indicate that, average own labour men available in the micro watershed was 9.19, average own labour (women) available was 5.66, average hired labour (men) available was 8.05 and average hired labour (women) available was 9.13.  In case of marginal farmers, average own labour men available was 31, average own labour (women) was 16, average hired labour (men) was 7 and average hired labour (women) available was 7.25. In case of small farmers, average own labour men available was 1.81, average own labour (women) was 1.69, average hired labour (men) was 9.27 and average hired labour (women) available was 11.63. In case of semi medium farmers, average own labour men available was 25, average own labour (women) was 15.71, average hired labour (men) was 11.29 and average hired labour (women) available was 10.57. In case of medium farmers, average own labour men available was 2.20, average own labour (women) was 2.60, average hired labour (men) was 9 and average hired labour (women) available was 10. In case of large farmers, average own labour men available was 1, average own labour (women) was 1, average hired labour (men) was 7 and average hired labour (women) available was 8. 3  The results indicate that, 8.11 per cent of the households opined that the hired labour was adequate and 94.59 per cent of the households opined that the hired labour was inadequate.  The results indicate that, households of the Chik Sulikeri micro watershed possess 22.83 ha (35.54%) of dry land and 41.42 ha (64.46%) of irrigated land. Marginal farmers possess 2.06 ha (80.95%) of dry land and 0.49 ha (19.05%) of irrigated land. Small farmers possess 13.89 ha (77.44%) of dry land and 4.05 ha (22.56%) of irrigated land. Semi medium possess 6.88 ha (52.80%) of dry land and 6.15 ha (47.20%) of irrigated land. Medium farmers possess 12.52 ha (100%) of irrigated land, large farmers possess 3.64 18.21 ha (100%) of irrigated land.  The results indicate that, the average value of dry land was Rs. 262,672.81 and average value of irrigated was Rs. 183,427.89. In case of marginal famers, the average land value was Rs. 435,882.36 for dry land and was Rs. 1,029,166.63 for irrigated land. In case of small famers, the average land value was Rs. 251,893.94 for dry land and Rs. 592,800. In case of semi medium famers, the average land value was Rs. 232,470.59 for dry land and Rs. 325,000 for irrigated land. In case of medium and large famers, the average irrigated land value was Rs. 215,546.22 and Rs. 220,000 respectively.  The results indicate that, there were 17 functioning and 16 de-functioning bore wells in the micro watershed.  The results indicate that, bore well was the major irrigation source in the micro water shed for 45.95 per cent of the farmers.  The results indicate that, the depth of bore well was found to be 77.04 meters.  The results indicate that, marginal farmers were having 0.40 ha irrigated land, small farmers were having 3.24 ha of irrigated land, semi medium were having 9.39 ha of irrigated land and medium farmers had irrigated area of 12.52 ha and large farmers were having 1.62 ha of irrigated land respectively. On an average there was 27.17 ha of irrigated land.  The results indicate that, farmers have grown groundnut (17.05 ha), maize (12.55 ha), bajra (4.05 ha), paddy (3.68 ha), navane (3.24 ha), mango (1.62 ha), sorghum (1.30 ha), horsegram (1.21 ha), groundnut (1.21 ha), cotton (0.81 ha) and tomato (0.40 ha) in kharif season and also grown groundnut (1.21 ha) in Rabi season. Marginal farmers have grown maize, navane and tomato. Small farmers have grown groundnut, bajra, paddy, navane, horsegram and cotton. Semi medium farmers have grown groundnut, maize, bajra, navane and groundnut. Medium farmers have grown groundnut, maize and paddy. Large farmers have grown mango.  The results indicate that, the cropping intensity in Chik Sulikeri micro watershed was found to be 88.79 per cent. In case of marginal farmers it was 98.36 per cent, for small farmers it was 99.54 per cent, in case of semi medium farmers it was 4 89.11 per cent, and medium farmers had cropping intensity of 72.90 per cent and in large farmers it was 100 per cent.  The results indicate that, 86.49 per cent of the households have bank account and 86.49 per cent of the households have savings.  The results indicate that, 86.49 per cent of the households have availed credit from different sources.  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for maize was Rs. 31771.63. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 34174.67. The net income from Maize cultivation was Rs. 2403.04, thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.08.  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for bajra was Rs. 35771.59. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 48158.68. The net income from bajra cultivation was Rs. 12387.09. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.35.  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for sorghum was Rs. 27138.83. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 33379.73. The net income from sorghum cultivation was Rs. 6240.91. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.23.  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for horsegram was Rs. 14751.82. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 32604. The net income from horsegram cultivation was Rs. 17852.18. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:2.21.  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for groundnut was Rs. 43450.70. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 73850.81. The net income from groundnut cultivation was Rs. 30400.12. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.7.  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for cotton was Rs. 48854.75. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 74100. The net income from cotton cultivation was Rs. 25245.25. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.52.  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for tomato was Rs. 45006.53. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 98800. The net income from tomato cultivation was Rs. 53793.47. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:2.2.  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for navane was Rs. 19144.78. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 25177.99. The net income from navane cultivation was Rs. 6033.21. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.32.  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for mango was Rs. 30875.21. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 203775. The net income from 5 mango cultivation was Rs. 172899.79. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:6.6.  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for paddy was Rs. 141928.82. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 137399.96. The net income from paddy cultivation was Rs. -4528.86. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.97.  The results indicate that, 21.62 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate and 13.51 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was inadequate. Around 2.70 per cent of the households opined that green fodder was adequate.  The results indicate that, in landless farmers, the average annual gross income from wage was Rs. 103,000, in marginal farmers, the average annual gross income from wage was Rs. 27,500 and agriculture was Rs.42837.50. In small farmers, the average annual gross income from service/salary was Rs. 2000, wage was Rs.22333.33, agriculture was Rs.71713.33 and dairy farm was Rs.5060.67.In semi medium farmers, the average annual gross income from wage was Rs. 32,142.86, agriculture was Rs. 71,542.86 and dairy farm was Rs. 1,285.71. In medium farmers, the average annual gross income from wage was Rs. 19400 and agriculture was Rs. 298400 and dairy farm was Rs. 600. In large farmers, the average annual gross income from wage was Rs. 10000 and agriculture was Rs. 30000.  The results indicate that, in land less farmers, the average annual expenditure from wage was Rs. 42000. In marginal farmers, the average annual expenditure from wage was Rs.8333.33 and agriculture was Rs. 23,750. In small farmers the average annual expenditure from service/salary was Rs.20000, wage was Rs.9000, agriculture was Rs.32266.67 and dairy farm was Rs.6600. In semi medium farmers, the average annual expenditure from wage was Rs.9500, agriculture was Rs.31428.57 and dairy farm was Rs.2000. In medium farmers, the average annual expenditure from wage was Rs.9,250, agriculture was Rs. 59,000 and dairy farm was Rs.1000. In large farmers the average annual expenditure from wage was Rs.5000 and agriculture was Rs.10000.  The results indicate that, sampled households have grown 2 areca nut, 11 coconut and 607 mango trees in their field and also planted 2 coconut trees in their back yard.  The results indicate that, households have planted 3 teak trees and 43 neem trees in their field and 1 neem trees in their backyard.  The results indicate that, households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 7243.24 for land development, Rs. 2513.51 in irrigation facility and 162.16 for improved crop production. Marginal households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 7000 for land development. Small farmers have an average 6 investment capacity of Rs. 7866.67 for land development, Rs. 3066.67 in irrigation facility and Rs.400 for improved crop production. Semi medium farmers have an average investment capacity of Rs. 8571.43 for land development and Rs. 3285.71 in irrigation facility. Medium farmers have an average investment capacity of Rs. 10,400 for land development and Rs. 3,200 in irrigation facility. large farmers have an average investment capacity of Rs. 10,000 for land development and Rs. 8,000 in irrigation facility.  The results indicate that, for land development, 31.58 per cent of the farmers were dependent on government subsidy and 42.11 per cent of the farmers were dependent on loan from bank. For irrigation facility 15.79 per cent of the farmers were dependent on government subsidy and loan from bank respectively. For improved crop production 2.63 per cent of the farmers were dependent on loan from bank.  The results indicated that, bajra, cotton, horsegram, maize, mango, navane, paddy, sorghum and tomato crops were sold to the extent of 100 per cent. Groundnut was sold to the extent of 95.50 per cent.  The results indicated that, about 8.11 per cent of the famers have sold their produce in agent/traders. 91.89 per cent farmers also sold their produce in cooperative marketing society.  The results indicated that, 2.70 per cent of the households have used cart as a mode of transportation for their agricultural produce, and 97.30 per cent have also used tractor.  The results indicated that, 62.61 per cent of the households have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the farm i.e., 50 per cent of marginal farmers, 80 per cent of small farmers, 57.14 per cent of semi medium farmers, 80 per cent of the medium farmers and 100 per cent of large farmers have experienced soil and water erosion problems.  The results indicated that, 75.68 per cent have shown interest in soil test.  The results indicated that, piped supply was the major source of drinking water for 89.19 per cent of the households and bore well was the source of drinking water for 10.81 per cent of the households.  The results indicated that, 100 per cent of the households used fire wood as a source of fuel.  The results indicated that, Electricity was the major source of light for 100 per cent of the households in micro watershed.  The results indicated that, 51.35 per cent of the households possess sanitary toilet i.e. 100 per cent of the landless, marginal, medium and large farmers, 13.13 per cent of small farmers and 28.57 per cent of the semi medium farmers.  The results indicated that, 97.30 per cent of the sampled households possessed BPL card and 2.70 per cent did not possess PDS card. 7  The results indicated that, 64.86 per cent of the households participated in NREGA programme.  The results indicated that, cereals were adequate for 97.30 per cent of the households, pulses were adequate for 54.05 per cent, oilseeds were adequate for 35.14 per cent, vegetables were adequate for 48.65 per cent, fruits were adequate for 78.38 per cent, milk was adequate for 54.05 per cent, eggs were adequate for 54.05 per cent and meat was adequate for 5.41 per cent of the households.  The results indicated that, cereals were inadequate for 2.70 per cent of the households, pulses were inadequate for 45.95 per cent, oilseeds were inadequate for 56.76 per cent, vegetables were inadequate for 45.95 per cent, fruits were inadequate for 24.32 per cent, milk was inadequate for 13.51 per cent and eggs were inadequate for 16.22 per cent of the households.  The results indicated that, lower fertility status of the soil was the constraint experienced by 75.68 per cent of the households, wild animal menace on farm field (64.86%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (29.73%), inadequacy of irrigation water (16.22%), high cost of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (43.24%), high rate of interest on credit (8.11%), low price for the agricultural commodities (16.22%), lack of marketing facilities in the area (13.51%), lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (24.32%), less rainfall (40.54%) inadequate extension services (24.32%) and source of agri technology information (13.51). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Gasaladoddi microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and these physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the Microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 536 ha in Koppal taluk and district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought - prone with an average annual rainfall of 662 mm, of which about 424 mm is received during south –west monsoon, 161 mm during north-east and the remaining 77 mm during the rest of the year. An area of about 80 per cent is covered by soil, 17 per cent by rock outcrops and 3 per cent by habitation and water body. The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below  The soils belong to 16 soil series and 36 soil phases (management units) and 8 land management units.  The length of crop growing period is 150cm) soils.  About 8 per cent sandy, 54 per cent loamy (sandy loam and sandy clay loam) and 18 per cent has clayey (sandy clay and clay) soils at the surface.  About 17 per cent of the area has non-gravelly (200 mm/m) in available water capacity.  An area of about 5 per cent is nearly level (0-1%), 72 per cent is very gently sloping (1-3%) and 3 per cent is gently sloping (3-5%) lands.  An area of about 22 per cent is slightly eroded (e1) and 58 per cent is moderately eroded (e2) lands.  An area of about 37 per cent is slightly acidic (pH 6.0-6.5), 37 per cent is neutral (pH 6.5-7.3), 5 per cent is slightly alkaline (pH 7.3-7.8) and 1 per cent is moderately alkaline (pH 7.8-8.4) in reaction.  The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of the soils are dominantly 0.75%) in 80 per cent area of the soils.  Available phosphorus is medium (23-57 kg/ha) in 68 per cent and high (>57 kg/ha) in 12 per cent area of the microwatershed.  Available potassium is low (337 kg/ha) in 32 per cent of the soils.  Available sulphur is low (20 ppm) in 3 per cent area of the microwatershed.  Available boron is low (4.5 ppm) in 80 per cent area of the microwatershed.  Available zinc is deficient (0.6 ppm) in 50 per cent area of the microwatershed.  Available manganese and copper are sufficient in the entire area of the microwatershed.  The land suitability for 31 major agricultural and horticultural crops grown in the microwatershed was assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (class S1) and moderately suitable (class S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price, and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 3(1) 121(21) Sapota 5(1) 118(22) Maize - 161(30) Pomegranate 5(1) 134(25) Bajra 33(6) 252(46) Musambi 9(2) 131(24) Groundnut 39(7) 254(47) Lime 9(2) 131(24) Sunflower 3(1) 51(9) Amla 39(7) 286(53) Redgram - 54(10) Cashew 5(1) 140(26) Bengal gram 3(1) 157(29) Jackfruit 5(1) 118(22) Cotton 3(1) 120(22) Jamun - 140(26) Chilli - 107(19) Custard apple 42(8) 283(52) Tomato - 107(19) Tamarind - 21(4) Brinjal 39(7) 152(28) Mulberry 5(1) 212(40) Onion 33(6) 141(26) Marigold - 123(22) Bhendi 33(6) 157(29) Chrysanthemum - 123(22) Drumstick 5(1) 106(20) Jasmine - 107(19) Mango - 18(3) Crossandra - 110(20) Guava 5(1) 118(22)  Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the 8 identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested to these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation and drainage line treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. That would help in supplementing the farm income, provide fodder and fuel, and generate lot of biomass which in turn would help in maintaining the ecological balance and contribute to mitigating the climate change. SALIENT FINDINGS OF THE STUDY  Results indicated that, 47 farmers were sampled in Gasaladoddi microwatershed among them 10 (21.28%) were marginal farmers, 15 (31.91 %) were small farmers, 14 (29.79 %) were semi medium farmers, 3 (6.38%) were medium farmers and 5 (10.64 %) landless farmers were also interviewed for the survey.  The data indicated that there were 259 population households were there in the studied micro watershed. Among them 137 (52.90%) men and 122 (47.10 %) were women. The average family size of landless was 4, marginal farmer was 6, small, semi medium and medium farmers were 5.  The data indicated that 59 (22.78%) people were in 0-15 years of age, 128 (49.42 %) were in 16-35 years of age, 52 (20.08 %) were in 36-60 years of age and 20(7.72%) were above 61 years of age.  The results indicated that the Gasaladoddi had 28.96 per cent illiterates, 35.14 per cent of them had primary school education, 11.97 per cent of them had middle school, 13.13 per cent them had high school education, 5.41 per cent of them had PUC education, 0.77 per cent of them had ITI education and masters and 1.93 per cent of them had degree education.  The results indicated that, 78.72 per cent of households practicing agriculture, 8.51 per cent of them were agricultural labour, 6.38 per cent of the household heads were general labours and 2.13 per cent were in government service.  The results indicated that agriculture was the major occupation for 66.80 per cent of the household members, 3.09 per cent were agricultural labourers, 2.70 per cent were general labours, 0.39 per cent were in government service,0.77 per cent housewives, 1.93 per cent were children and 23.17 per cent of them were students. In case of landless farmers, 23.81 per cent were agricultural labour and 33.33 per cent were general labour and student respectively. In case of marginal farmers 65.08 per cent of them were doing agriculture, 3.17 per cent of them were agriculture labour and 26.68 per cent of them were students. In small farmers 71.08 per cent of them were doing agriculture and 27.71 per cent of them were students. In case of semi medium farmers 79.49 per cent of them were agriculturist, and 14.10 per cent of them were students. In medium farmers 78.57 per cent of them were agriculturist and 14.29 per cent of them were doing other work.  The results showed that 100 per cent of households have not participated in any local institutions.  The results indicated that 40.43 per cent of the households possess thatched house, 29.79 per cent of the households possess Katcha house and 4.26 per cent of the households possess Pacca house.  The results showed that, 85.11 per cent of the households possess TV, 78.72 per cent of the households possess mixer/grinder, 29.79 per cent of the households possess 2 bicycle, 40.43 per cent of the households possess motor cycle and 95.74 per cent of the households possess mobile phones.  The results showed that the average value of television was Rs. 6,475, mixer/grinder was Rs. 1,305, bicycle was Rs. 1,285, motor cycle was Rs. 38,600 and mobile phone was Rs. 1,408.  Results showed that about 31.91 per cent of the households possess bullock cart, 40.43 per cent of them possess plough, 2.13 per cent of the households possess tractor, 23.40 per cent of the households possess sprayer, 78.72 per cent of the households possess weeder and 2.13 per cent of the households possess chaff cutter.  The results showed that the average value of bullock cart was Rs. 27,733; the average value of plough was Rs. 1,354, the average value of tractor was Rs. 700,000, the average value of sprayer was Rs. 4,272, the average value of weeder was Rs. 30 and the average value of chaff cutter was Rs. 3,000.  The results indicated that, 38.30 per cent of the households possess bullocks, 27.66 per cent of the households possess local cow and 2.13 per cent of the households possess buffalo and sheep respectively. 40 per cent of the marginal farmers possess bullock. In case of small farmers, 40 per cent of the households possess bullock and 3.33 per cent of the households possess local cow. In case of semi medium farmers, 50 per cent of households possess bullock and 42.86 per cent possess local cow. In case of medium farmers, 66.67 per cent of the households possess local cow and 33.33 per cent of the households possess bullock and buffalo respectively.  The results indicated that, average own labour men available in the micro watershed was 10.68, average own labour (women) available was 6.73, average hired labour (men) available was 10.73 and average hired labour (women) available was 9.12.  In case of marginal farmers, average own labour men available was 2, average own labour (women) was also 1.80, average hired labour (men) was 9.40 and average hired labour (women) available was 8.60. In case of small farmers, average own labour men available was 13.73, average own labour (women) was 8.47, average hired labour (men) was 11.40 and average hired labour (women) available was 9.20. In case of semi medium farmers, average own labour men available was 2.23, average own labour (women) was 2.08, average hired labour (men) was 10 and average hired labour (women) available was 8.08. In medium farmers average own labour men available was 61, average own labour (women) was 34.67, average hired labour (men) was 15 and average hired labour (women) available was 15.  The results indicated that, 85.11 per cent of the household opined that the hired labour was adequate and 2.13 per cent of them opined that hired labour was inadequate.  The results indicated that, 1 person was migrated from micro watershed that belonged to marginal farmer category. Total migration in the micro watershed was only 0.39 per cent. 3  The results indicated that, people have migrated on an average of 10 Kms and average duration was 10 months. Semi medium farmers have migrated 10 kms and on an average for 10 months.  The results indicated that, job/work was the only reason for migration for all the migrants.  The results indicated that, households of the Gasaladoddi microwatershed possess 30.84 ha (53.50%) of dry land and 26.80ha (46.50%) of irrigated land. Marginal farmers possess 5.14ha (80.79%) of dry land 1.22ha (19.21%) of irrigated land. Small farmers possess 15.28 ha (83.26%) of dry land and 3.07ha (16.74%) of irrigated land. Semi medium farmers possess 10.42 ha (40%) of dry land and 15.63ha (60%) of irrigated land. Medium farmers possess 6.88ha (100%) of the irrigated land.  The results indicated that, the average value of dry land was Rs. 340,354.33 and average value of irrigated was Rs. 522,198.73. In case of marginal famers, the average land value was Rs. 855,748.04 for dry land and Rs. 1,390,397.36 for irrigated land. In case of small famers, the average land value was Rs. 242,028.60 for dry land Rs. 1,106,455.88 for irrigated land. In case of semi medium famers, the average land value was Rs. 230,303.03 for dry land and Rs. 498,989.90 for irrigated land. In case of medium famers, the average land value was Rs. 159,823.53 for irrigated land.  The results indicated that, there were 10 defunctioning and 22 functioning bore wells in the micro watershed.  The results indicated that, there were 1 defunctioning and 1 functioning bore wells in the micro watershed.  The results indicated that, bore well was the major irrigation source for 46.81 per cent of the farmers and 2.13 per cent were using open well as a source of irrigation.  The results indicated that on an average the depth of the bore well was 42.78 meters and open well was 0.65 meters.  The results indicated that, in case of marginal farmers there was 1.22 per cent of irrigated land, in case of small farmers there was 3.07 ha of irrigated land, in case of semi medium farmers there was 19.04 ha of irrigated land and medium farmers were having 6.07 ha of irrigated land. On an average there were 29.41 ha of irrigated land.  The results indicated that, farmers have grown maize (31.01ha), groundnut (7.90 ha), bajra (4.14 ha), cotton (1.88 ha), paddy (3.33 ha), sunflower (2.51 ha) and cotton (0.40 ha) in kharif season. Marginal farmers have grown maize and paddy. Small farmers have grown maize, groundnut, bajra, sunflower and cotton. Semi medium farmers have grown maize, groundnut, bajra and paddy. Medium farmers have grown maize, groundnut and bajra. 4  The results indicated that, the cropping intensity in Gasaladoddi microwatershed was found to be 76.96 per cent. In case of marginal farmers it was 100 per cent, in small farmers it was 93.37, in semi medium farmers it was 65.16 and in medium farmers it was 72.22 per cent.  The results indicated that, 70.21 per cent of the households have bank account. 80 percent of landless, 100 marginal, 66.67 per cent small and 64.29 semi medium farmers possess bank account respectively.  The results indicated that, 40 per cent of landless, 60 per cent of marginal, 6.67 per cent of the small and 28.57 per cent of semi medium farmers have borrowed credit from different sources.  The results indicated that, 5.56 per cent have availed loan from friends/relatives and money lender respectively.  The results indicated that, landless farmers availed Rs.25000. Overall average credit amount availed by households in the micro watershed is 2777.78.  The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for maize was Rs. 32578.46. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 33910.98. The net income from maize cultivation was Rs. 1332.52. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.04.  The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for groundnut was Rs. 76846.27. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 75018.72. The net income from groundnut cultivation was Rs. -1827.55. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.98.  The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for redgram was Rs. 92106.94. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 37235.25. The net income from redgram cultivation was Rs. -54871.69. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.4.  The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for bajra was Rs. 27964.69. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 20417.92. The net income from bajra cultivation was Rs. -7546.77. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.73.  The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for Sunflower was Rs. 19607.59. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 53768.81. The net income from Sunflower cultivation was Rs. 34161.23. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:2.74.  The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for Cotton was Rs. 59113.07. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 88920. The net income from Cotton cultivation was Rs. 29806.93. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.5.  The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for paddy was Rs. 58431.09. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 91584.65. The net income from 5 paddy cultivation was Rs. 33153.56. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.57.  The results indicated that, 68.09 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate and 19.15 per cent of the households opined that green fodder was adequate.  The results indicated that, in landless farmers, the average income from wage was Rs. 52800. In marginal farmers the average income from business was Rs.2000, wage was Rs. 37,500 and agriculture was Rs. 29,340. In small farmers the average income from wage was Rs. 25,866.67, agriculture was Rs. 64,640 and dairy farm was Rs. 500. In semi medium farmers the average income from service/salary was Rs. 15,714.29, wage was Rs. 15,928.57, agriculture was Rs. 85,357.14 and dairy farm was Rs. 1,142.86. In medium farmers the average income from wage was Rs. 11,666.67, agriculture was Rs. 95,000 and dairy farm was Rs.1833.33.  The results indicated that, in marginal farmers the average expenditure from agriculture was Rs.12000 and goat farming was Rs.8000. In case of small farmers the average expenditure from wage was Rs. 1,166.67, agriculture was Rs. 33,933.33 and dairy farm was Rs. 500. In case of semi medium farmers the average expenditure from service/salary was Rs. 50,000, wage was Rs. 1,833.33, dairy farm was Rs. 1,125 and agriculture was Rs. 35,142.86. In case of medium farmers the average expenditure from wage was Rs. 7,000, agriculture was Rs. 40,000 and dairy farming was Rs. 1250.  The results indicated that, sampled households have grown 2 cocoa, 65 coconut, 2 guava and 16 mango trees in their field and also planted 2 coconut trees in their back yard.  The results indicated that, households have planted 51 teak, 85 neem, 3 tarmind trees and 5 banyan trees in their field.  The results indicate that, households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 4276.60 for land development, Rs. 1425.53 in irrigation facility, Rs.2808.51 for improved crop production and Rs.829.79 for improved livestock management.  Marginal households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 5800 for land development, Rs.3700 for improved crop production and Rs.800 for improved livestock management. Small farmers have an average investment capacity of Rs. 3733.33 for land development, Rs. 1600 in irrigation facility, Rs.2800 for improved crop production and Rs.400 for improved livestock management. Semi medium farmers have an average investment capacity of Rs. 6214.29 for land development, Rs. 3071.43 in irrigation facility, Rs.3785.71 for improved crop production and Rs.1785.71 for improved livestock management.  The results indicated that, for land development, 40.43 per cent of the farmers were depending on government subsidy and 2.13 per cent were depending on loan from the bank. 19.15 per cent of the households were dependent on government subsidy 6 for irrigation facility. Similarly for improved crop production, 42.55 per cent of the households were dependent on government subsidy and 2.13 per cent were depending on loan from the bank and 21.28 per cent were depending on loan from the bank for improved live stock management.  The results indicated that, bajra, cotton, paddy and sunflower crops were sold to the extent of 100 per cent. Groundnut and maize were sold to an extent 95.38 per cent and 99.88 per cent respectively.  The results indicated that, 6.38 percent of the households have sold their produce to agents/ traders and regulated market respectively and 100 per cent of the households have sold their produce to local/village merchant.  The results indicated that 6.38 per cent of the households have used cart as a mode of transport, 80.85 per cent of them have used tractor and 36.17 per cent have used truck as a mode of transport.  The results indicated that, 46.81 per cent of the households have experienced the soil and water erosion problems i.e. 80 percent of marginal farmers, 40 per cent of small farmers and 57.14 per cent of semi medium farmers.  The results indicated that, 63.83 per cent of the households have shown interest in soil testing including 100 per cent of marginal farmers, 73.33 per cent of the small farmers and 64.29 per cent of the semi medium farmers.  The results indicated that, 100 percent used fire wood as a source of fuel and 2.13 per cent of them used LPG as a source of fuel.  The results indicated that, piped supply was the source of drinking water for 59.57 per cent and 44.68 per cent of them were using bore well for drinking water.  The results indicated that, electricity was the major source of light for 100 per cent of the households.  The results indicated that, 17.02 per cent of the households possess sanitary toilet i.e. 40 per cent of landless, 20 per cent of marginal, 13.33 per cent of small, 7.14 per cent of the semi medium and 33.33 per cent of the medium farmers had sanitary toilet facility.  The results indicated that, 93.62 per cent of the sampled households possessed BPL card, 2.13 per cent of the sampled households does not possessed BPL card and 4.26 per cent of the sampled households possessed APL card.  The results indicated that, 23.40 per cent of the households participated in NREGA programme which included 20 per cent of the landless, 30 percent of the marginal, 13.33 per cent of the small, 14.29 per cent of the semi medium and 100 percent of the medium farmers.  The results indicated that, cereals, pulses, oilseeds, vegetables, fruits , milk, egg and meat were adequate for 97.87 per cent, 87.23 per cent, 25.53 per cent, 82.98 per cent, 2.13 per cent, 72.34 per cent, 48.94 per cent and 44.68 per cent respectively. 7  The results indicated that, cereals, pulses, oilseed; vegetables, fruits and milk were inadequate for 4.26 per cent, 10.64 per cent, 40.43 per cent, 10.64 per cent, 65.96 per cent and 21.28 per cent of the households respectively.  The results indicated that, Lower fertility status of the soil problem was experienced by 29.79 per cent of the households, and wild animal menace on farm field was experienced by 61.70 per cent of the households, frequent incidence of pest and diseases was experienced by 63.83 per cent of the farmers, inadequacy of irrigation water was experienced by 25.53 per cent of the households, high cost of Fertilizers and plant protection chemicals was experienced 55.32 per cent and high rate of interest on credit was experienced by 17.02 per cent of the farmers, low price for the agricultural commodities was experienced by 42.55 per cent of the farmers, lack of marketing facilities in the area was experienced 34.04 per cent of the households, inadequate of extension services experienced by 38.30 per cent of the households, lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market was experienced by 53.19 per cent of the households, less rainfall was experienced by 36.17 per cent and of the farmers and Source of Agri-technology information(Newspaper/TV/Mobile) 4.26 per cent of the households. ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Belur-2 microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and these physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the Microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 566 ha in Koppal taluk and district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought - prone with an average annual rainfall of 662 mm, of which about 424 mm is received during south –west monsoon, 161 mm during north-east and the remaining 77 mm during the rest of the year. Entire area is covered by soil and 150cm) soils.  About 9 per cent loamy (sandy clay loam) and 91 per cent has clayey (sandy clay and clay) soils at the surface.  About 44 per cent of the area has non-gravelly (200 mm/m) in available water capacity.  About 8 per cent area in the microwatershed is nearly level (0-1%) and 92 per cent very gently sloping (1-3%) lands.  An area of about 28 per cent is slightly eroded (e1) and 72 per cent is moderately eroded (e2) lands.  An area of about 4 per cent is neutral (pH 6.5-7.3), 10 per cent is slightly alkaline (pH 7.3-7.8), 19 per cent is moderately alkaline (pH 7.8-8.4), 38 per cent is strongly alkaline (pH 8.4-9.0) and 29 per cent is very strongly alkaline (pH >9.0) in reaction.  The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of the soils are dominantly 337 kg/ha) in 13 per cent area of the soils.  Available sulphur is low (20 ppm) in 4 per cent area of the soils.  Available boron is low (4.5 ppm) in 52 per cent area of the microwatershed.  Available zinc is deficient (<0.6 ppm) in the entire area of the microwatershed.  Available manganese and copper is sufficient in the entire area of the microwatershed.  The land suitability for 31 major agricultural and horticultural crops grown in the microwatershed was assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (class S1) and moderately suitable (class S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price, and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 209(37) 244(43) Sapota - 114(20) Maize 61(11) 393(69) Pomegranate - 356(63) Bajra 126(22) 331(59) Musambi 90(16) 256(45) Groundnut 41(7) 82(15) Lime 90(16) 256(45) Sunflower 90(16) 245(43) Amla 103(18) 370(66) Redgram - 305(54) Cashew 61(11) 52(9) Bengal gram 148(26) 296(52) Jackfruit - 114(20) Cotton 148(26) 306(54) Jamun - 164(29) Chilli 62(11) 74(13) Custard apple 251(44) 222(40) Tomato 62(11) 51(9) Tamarind - 135(24) Brinjal 103(18) 360(64) Mulberry - 303(54) Onion 41(7) 72(13) Marigold 61(11) 392(69) Bhendi 41(7) 422(75) Chrysanthemum 61(11) 392(69) Drumstick - 345(61) Jasmine 61(11) 160(28) Mango - 22(4) Crossandra 61(11) 99(17) Guava - 113(20)  Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the 7 identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested to these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation and drainage line treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. That would help in supplementing the farm income, provide fodder and fuel, and generate lot of biomass which in turn would help in maintaining the ecological balance and contribute to mitigating the climate change. SALIENT FINDINGS OF THE STUDY  Results indicated that, 35 farmers were sampled in Belur-2 microwatershed among them 6 (13.95%) were marginal farmers, 12 (30.23 %) were small farmers, 11 (25.58 %) were semi medium farmers, 1 (2.33%) were medium farmers and 6 (13.95 %) landless farmers were also interviewed for the survey.  The data indicated that there were 188 population households were there in the studied micro watershed. Among them 100 (53.19%) men and 88 (46.81 %) were women. The average family size of landless was 4.67, marginal farmer was 3.85, small farmer was 4.6, semi medium farmers were 4.45 and medium and large farmers were 5.  The data indicated that 26 (13.83%) people were in 0-15 years of age, 85 (45.21 %) were in 16-35 years of age, 58 (30.85 %) were in 36-60 years of age and 19 (10.11%) were above 61 years of age.  The results indicated that the Belur-2 had 27.66 per cent illiterates, 32.98 per cent of them had primary school education, 6.91 per cent of them had middle school, 15.43 per cent them had high school education, 8.51 per cent of them had PUC education, 0.53 per cent of them had ITI education and 3.19 per cent of them had degree education.  The results indicated that, 83.72 per cent of households practicing agriculture, 13.95 per cent of the household heads were agricultural labour and 2.33 per cent of the household heads were others.  The results indicated that agriculture was the major occupation for 29.26 per cent of the household members, 44.15 per cent were agricultural labourers, 2.13 per cent were general labours and 1.06 per cent were in private sector, 0.53 per cent were in government service, 2.66 per cent were housewives and children's and 15.43 per cent of them were students. In case of landless farmers 57.14 per cent of them were agriculture labours, 14.29 per cent were general labours and 10.71 per cent of them were students.  In case of marginal farmers 32 per cent of them were doing agriculture, 48 per cent of them were agriculture and 16 per cent of them were students. In small farmers 32 per cent of them were doing agriculture, 30.36 per cent of them were agriculture labour, 8.93 per cent were children and 17.86 per cent of them were students. In case of semi medium farmers 28.57 per cent of them were agriculturist, 53.06 per cent of them were agriculture labour, 2.04 per cent of them were in private service. and 16.33 per cent of them were students. In medium farmers 60 per cent of them were agriculturist, 20 per cent of them were government service and 20 per cent of them were doing other work.  The results showed that 1.06 per cent of them participated in Sthree Shakthi Sangha and 98.94 per cent of them have not participated in any local institutions. Landless, 2 marginal, semi medium and medium farmers were found to have no participation in any local institutions. Small farmers were found to participate in one or the other local institutions.  The results indicated that 6.98 per cent of the households possess thatched house, 83.72 per cent of the households possess Katcha house and 9.30 per cent of the households possess Pacca house.  The results showed that, 88.37 per cent of the households possess TV, 79.07 per cent of the households possess mixer/grinder, 55.81 per cent of the households possess bicycle, 44.19 per cent of the households possess motor cycle, 2.33 per cent of them possess tempo and 86.05 per cent of the households possess mobile phones.  The results showed that the average value of television was Rs. 3526, mixer/grinder was Rs. 1188, bicycle was Rs.1041, motor cycle was Rs.48684, Tempo was Rs.2000, Edge shear was Rs.3000 and mobile phone was Rs.1093.  Results showed that, about 16.28 per cent of the households possess bullock cart, 25.58 per cent of them possess plough, 2.33 per cent of the households possess tractor, 11.63 per cent of the households possess sprayer, 79.07 per cent of the households possess weeder and 9.30 per cent of the households possess chaff cutter.  The results showed that the average value of bullock cart was Rs.17428; the average value of plough was Rs. 911, the average value of tractor was Rs. 300000, the average value of sprayer was Rs. 20200, the average value of weeder was Rs. 36 and the average value of chaff cutter was Rs. 2175.  The results indicated that, 23.26 per cent of the households possess bullocks, 6.98 per cent of the households possess local cow, 2.33 per cent of the households possess crossbreed cow, 4.65 per cent of the households possess sheep and 9.30 per cent of the households possess buffalo and goat respectively. 16.67 per cent of the landless farmers possess sheep and goat respectively. In case of marginal farmers, 15.38 per cent of the households possess local cow and 7.69 per cent of the households possess local cow, crossbreed cow and goat respectively. In case of small farmers, 25 per cent of households possess bullock and 8.33 per cent possess local cow, buffalo, sheep and goat correspondingly. In case of semi medium farmers, 45.45 per cent of the households possess bullock and 9.09 per cent of the households possess local cow and buffalo respectively. 100 per cent of the medium farmers possess goat.  The results indicated that, average own labour men available in the micro watershed was 1.59, average own labour (women) available was 1.39, average hired labour (men) available was 7.70 and average hired labour (women) available was 8.11.  In case of marginal farmers, average own labour men available was 1.69, average own labour (women) was also 1.38, average hired labour (men) was 6.08 and average hired labour (women) available was 6.08. In case of small farmers, average 3 own labour men available was 1.54, average own labour (women) was 1.50, average hired labour (men) was 7.08 and average hired labour (women) available was 7.25. In case of semi medium farmers, average own labour men available was 1.55, average own labour (women) was 1.27, average hired labour (men) was 10.55 and average hired labour (women) available was 11.73. In medium farmers average own labour men available was 2, average own labour (women) was 1.  The results indicated that, 9.30 per cent of the household opined that the hired labour was adequate and 76.74 per cent of them opined that hired labour was inadequate.  The results indicated that, households of the Belur-2 microwatershed possess 28.99 ha (62.56%) of dry land and 17.35 ha (37.44 %) of irrigated land. Marginal farmers possess 7.55 ha (89.66%) of dry land 0.87 ha (10.34%) of irrigated land. Small farmers possess 15.78 ha (94.73%) of dry land and 0.88 ha (5.27%) of irrigated land. Semi medium farmers possess 5.67 ha (32.15%) of dry land and 11.95 ha (67.85%) of irrigated land. Medium farmers possess 3.64 ha (100%) of the irrigated land.  The results indicated that, the average value of dry land was Rs. 298,275.86 and average value of irrigated was Rs. 403,406.44. In case of marginal famers, the average land value was Rs. 423,806.96 for dry land and Rs. 1,033,953.50 for irrigated land. In case of small famers, the average land value was Rs. 256,631.61 for dry land Rs. 569,124.40 for irrigated land. In case of semi medium famers, the average land value was Rs. 247,000 for dry land and Rs. 392,992.56 for irrigated land. In case of medium famers, the average land value was Rs. 247,000 for irrigated land.  The results indicated that, there were 14 defunctioning and 15 functioning bore wells in the micro watershed.  The results indicated that, bore well was the major irrigation source for 34.88 per cent of the farmers.  The results indicated that on an average the depth of the bore well was 23.09 meters.  The results indicated that, in case of marginal farmers there was 0.87 per cent of irrigated land, in case of small farmers there was 1.28 ha of irrigated land, in case of semi medium farmers there was 12.10 ha of irrigated land and medium farmers were having 3.64 ha of irrigated land. On an average there were 17.90 ha of irrigated land.  The results indicated that, farmers have grown maize (19.93ha), onion (8.51 ha), groundnut (5.81 ha), sunflower (2.43 ha), cotton (1.88 ha), Red gram (1.83 ha), sorghum (1.62 ha), bajra (0.97 ha), banana (0.4 ha) and green gram (0.4 ha) in kharif season. Marginal farmers have grown maize, groundnut, sunflower, cotton, red gram and bajra. Small farmers have grown maize, onion, groundnut, sunflower 4 and green gram. Small farmers have grown maize, onion, cotton, red gram, sorghum and banana. Medium farmers have grown only maize.  The results indicated that, the cropping intensity in Belur-2 microwatershed was found to be 82.12 per cent. In case of marginal farmers it was 95.19 per cent, in small farmers it was 89.92, in semi medium farmers it was 69.54 and in medium farmers it was 100 per cent.  The results indicated that, 69.77 per cent of the households have both bank account and savings respectively. 92.31 percent of marginal, small and large farmers possess both bank account savings respectively. In small farmers 66.67 per cent of the households have both bank account and savings respectively. In case of semi medium farmers, 90.91 per cent of possess bank account and savings respectively.  The results indicated that, 92.31 per cent of marginal, 66.67 per cent of small and 90.91 per cent of semi medium farmers have borrowed credit from different sources.  The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for maize was Rs. 32679.41. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 35141.18. The net income from maize cultivation was Rs. 2461.78. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.08.  The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for groundnut was Rs. 32679.41. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 35141.18. The net income from groundnut cultivation was Rs. 2461.78. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.08.  The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for redgram was Rs. 92106.94. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 37235.25. The net income from redgram cultivation was Rs. -54871.69. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.4.  The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for bajra was Rs. 49544.52. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 37461.67. The net income from bajra cultivation was Rs. -12082.86. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.76.  The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for sorghum was Rs. 6593.64. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 18278. The net income from sorghum cultivation was Rs. 11684.36. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:2.77.  The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for green gram was Rs. 43774.34. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 41990. The net income from green gram cultivation was Rs. -1784.34. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.96.  The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for onion was Rs. 31943.56. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 132285.50. The net income from 5 onion cultivation was Rs. 100341.94. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:4.14.  The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for Sunflower was Rs. 26042.92. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 42306.47. The net income from Sunflower cultivation was Rs. 16263.55. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.62.  The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for Cotton was Rs. 38511.39. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 79607.03. The net income from Cotton cultivation was Rs. 41095.63. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:2.07.  The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for Banana was Rs. 89684.87. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 247000. The net income from Banana cultivation was Rs. 157315.13. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:2.75.  The results indicated that, 18.60 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate, 11.63 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was inadequate and 18.60 per cent of the households opined that green fodder was adequate.  The results indicated that, in landless farmers, the average income from wage was Rs. 27000. In marginal farmers the average income from service/salary was Rs.7384.62, wage was Rs. 30384.62, agriculture was Rs. 32015.38 and dairy farm was Rs. 5230.77. In small farmers the average income from business was Rs. 1000, wage was Rs. 21166.67, agriculture was Rs. 43470.83 and dairy farm was Rs. 1166.67. In semi medium farmers the average income from service/salary was Rs. 16272.73, wage was Rs. 22454.55, agriculture was Rs. 187236.36 and dairy farm was Rs.363.64. In medium farmers the average income from business was Rs. 6000 and agriculture was Rs. 375000.  The results indicated that, in landless farmers, the average expenditure from wage was Rs. 25000, farm income was Rs.500 and goat farming was Rs.5000. In marginal farmers the average expenditure from wage was Rs.9090.91, agriculture was Rs.16307.69 and dairy farm was Rs.9333.33. In case of small farmers the average expenditure from business was Rs. 4000, wage was Rs. 11500, agriculture was Rs. 28727.27 and dairy farm was Rs. 2000. In case of semi medium farmers the average expenditure from service/salary was Rs.40500, wage was Rs. 8375, dairy farm was Rs.2000 and agriculture was Rs. 60090.91. In case of medium farmers the average expenditure from business was Rs.4000, agriculture was Rs. 50000 and goat farming was Rs. 2000.  The results indicated that, sampled households have grown 34 coconut trees in their field and also planted 1 coconut tree in their back yard. 6  The results indicated that, households have planted 1 eucalyptus, 5 teak, 58 neem, 1 tarmind tree, 3 pongamia trees and 1 banyan tree in their field and also planted 2 neem tree in their back yard.  The results indicate that, households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 4744.19 for land development, Rs. 441.86 in irrigation facility and 302.33 Rs.2714.29 for improved crop production.  Marginal households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 6846.15 for land development, Rs. 769.23 for irrigation facility and Rs.384.62 for improved crop production. Small farmers have an average investment capacity of Rs. 3666.67 for land development, Rs. 83.33 in irrigation facility and Rs.666.67 for improved crop production. Semi medium farmers have an average investment capacity of Rs. 6454.55 for land development and Rs. 727.27 in irrigation facility.  The results indicated that, for land development, 31.11 per cent of the farmers were depend on government subsidy, 22.22 per cent were depend on loan from the bank. 4.44 per cent of the households were dependent on government subsidy and 8.89 per cent of the households were dependent on loan from the bank for irrigation facility. Similarly for improved crop production, 4.44 per cent of the households were dependent on government subsidy.  The results indicated that, cotton, onion and sunflower crops were sold to the extent of 100 per cent. Bajra, banana, groundnut, maize and red gram were sold to an extent 13.04 per cent, 90 per cent, 68.75 per cent, 99.77 per cent and 88.89 per cent respectively.  The results indicated that, 2.33 percent of the households have sold their produce to agents/ traders, 16.28 per cent of the households have sold their produce to local/village merchant, 74.42 percent of the households sold their produce in regulated markets and 2.33 percent of the households sold their produce in cooperative marketing society.  The results indicated that 18.60 per cent of the households have used cart as a mode of transport, 72.09 per cent of them have used tractor and 2.33 per cent have used bus as a mode of transport.  The results indicated that, 34.88 per cent of the households have experienced the soil and water erosion problems i.e. 46.15 percent of marginal farmers, 33.33 per cent of small farmers and 45.45 per cent of semi medium farmers.  The results indicated that, 65.12 per cent of the households have shown interest in soil testing including 92.31 per cent of marginal farmers, 58.33 per cent of the small farmers and 81.82 semi medium farmers.  The results indicated that, 100 percent used fire wood as a source of fuel.  The results indicated that, piped supply was the source of drinking water for 90.70 per cent and 11.63 per cent of them were using bore well for drinking water. 7  The results indicated that, electricity was the major source of light for 100 per cent of the households.  The results indicated that, 46.51 per cent of the households possess sanitary toilet i.e. 100 per cent of landless, semi medium and medium farmers, 7.69 per cent of marginal and 8.33 per cent of small farmers had sanitary toilet facility.  The results indicated that, 93.02 per cent of the sampled households possessed BPL card and 6.98 per cent of the sampled households does not possessed BPL card.  The results indicated that, 60.47 per cent of the households participated in NREGA programme which included 50 per cent of the landless, 69.23 percent of the marginal, 50 per cent of the small, 63.64 per cent of the semi medium and 100 percent of the medium farmers.  The results indicated that, cereals, pulses, oilseeds, vegetables, fruits , milk, egg and meat were adequate for 100 per cent, 53.49 per cent, 51.16 per cent, 39.53 per cent, 58.14 per cent, 51.16 per cent, 48.84 per cent and 9.30 per cent respectively.  The results indicated that, pulses, oilseed; vegetables, fruits, milk, egg and meat were inadequate for 46.51 per cent, 48.84 per cent, 60.47 per cent, 27.91 per cent, 23.26 per cent, 27.91 per cent and 6.98 per cent of the households respectively.  The results indicated that, Lower fertility status of the soil problem was experienced by 72.09 per cent of the households, and wild animal menace on farm field was experienced by 62.79 per cent of the households, frequent incidence of pest and diseases was experienced by 27.91 per cent of the farmers, inadequacy of irrigation water was experienced by 13.95 per cent of the households, high cost of Fertilizers and plant protection chemicals was experienced 44.19 per cent and high rate of interest on credit was experienced by 13.95 per cent of the farmers, low price for the agricultural commodities was experienced by 18.60 per cent of the farmers, lack of marketing facilities in the area was experienced 16.28 per cent of the households, inadequate of extension services experienced by 11.63 per cent of the households, lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market was experienced by 34.88 per cent of the households, less rainfall was experienced by 51.16 per cent and of the farmers and Source of Agri-technology information(Newspaper/TV/Mobile) 11.63 per cent of the households. ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Chikkabagnalu microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and these physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 680 ha in Koppal taluk and district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought - prone with an average annual rainfall of 662 mm, of which about 424 mm is received during south–west monsoon, 161 mm during north-east and the remaining 77 mm during the rest of the year. An area of 82 per cent is covered by soils, 6 per cent area is covered by mining/industrial, 1 per cent area is covered by rock lands and 11 per cent is covered by habitation and settlements. The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 11 soil series and 29 soil phases (management units) and 5 Land Management Units.  The length of crop growing period is 150 cm).  An area of about 73 per cent area in the microwatershed has loamy soils and 9 per cent clayey soils at the surface.  An area of about 33 per cent area has non-gravelly (0.75%) in 76 per cent area and medium (0.5-0.75%) in 6 per cent area of the microwatershed.  Entire cultivated area of the microwatershed is high (>57 kg/ha) in available phosphorus.  Entire cultivated area of the microwatershed is medium (145-337 kg/ha) in available potassium.  Available sulphur is high (>20 ppm) in 1 per cent area, medium (10 -20 ppm) in 31 per cent area and low (4.5 ppm) and 13 per cent is deficient (1.0 ppm) in available manganese content.  Entire cultivated area of the microwatershed is sufficient (>0.2 ppm) in available copper content.  An area of about 16 per cent is deficient (0.6 ppm) in available zinc content.  The land suitability for 31 major crops grown in the microwatershed was assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 90(13) 275(40) Sapota 84(12) 317(47) Maize 75(11) 291(43) Pomegranate 84(12) 317(47) Bajra 286(42) 171(25) Guava 1(<1) 400(59) Groundnut 131(19) 419(62) Jackfruit 84(12) 317(47) Sunflower 66(10) 243(36) Jamun 37(5) 301(44) Cotton 66(10) 275(40) Musambi 84(12) 293(43) Red gram 66(10) 219(32) Lime 84(12) 293(43) Bengalgram - 318(47) Cashew 40(6) 361(53) Chilli 120(18) 246(36) Custard apple 286(42) 264(39) Tomato 120(18) 246(36) Amla 286(42) 264(39) Brinjal 243(36) 197(29) Tamarind 37(5) 82(12) Onion 154(23) 287(42) Marigold 65(10) 301(44) Bhendi 154(23) 287(42) Chrysanthemum 65(10) 301(44) Drumstick 84(12) 318(47) Jasmine 65(10) 301(44) Mulberry 84(12) 410(60) Crossandra 65(10) 277(41) Mango 37(5) 47(7)  Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the 5 identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested for these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. That would help in supplementing the farm income, provide fodder and fuel, and generate lot of biomass which in turn would help in maintaining the ecological balance and contribute to mitigating the climate change. SALIENT FEATURES OF THE SURVEY  The data on households sampled for socio economic survey in Chikkabagnalu micro indicated that 30 farmers were sampled in Chikkabagnalu micro watershed among them 6 (20%) were marginal farmers, 8 (26.67%) were small farmers, 9(30%) were semi medium farmers, 6(20%) were medium farmers and 1(3.33%) landless farmer was also interviewed for the survey.  The data indicated that there were 150 population households were there in the studied micro watershed. Among them 92 (61.33%) men and 58 (38.67 %) were women. The average family size of landless was 5, marginal farmers were 5, small farmers were 7, semi medium farmers were 4 and medium farmers were 4. On an average the family size was 5.  The data indicated that 26(17.33%) people were in 0-15 years of age, 69 (46%) were in 16-35 years of age, 45 (30 %) were in 36-60 years of age and 10 (6.67%) were above 61 years of age.  The results indicated that the Chikkabagnalu had 34 per cent illiterates, 26 per cent of them had primary school education, 9.33 per cent of them had both middle school, 13.33 per cent them had high school education, 7.33 per cent of them had PUC education, 2 per cent them had ITI education, 4.67 per cent of them had degree education and 3.33 per cent them had others.  The results indicated that, 93.33 per cent of households practicing agriculture and 3.33 per cent of the household heads were agricultural labour.  The results indicated that agriculture was the major occupation for 50.67 per cent of the household members, 17.33 per cent were agricultural labourers, 2.67 per cent were general labours, 0.67 per cent household industry, 1.33 percent were in government service, 0.67 per cent of them were in private sector, 22 per cent of them were students, 3.33 per cent of them were children and 1.33 per cent were housewives. In case of landless households 20 per cent were agricultural labourers, 60 per cent were general labourers and 20 per cent were household industry. In case of marginal farmers 42.86 per cent were agriculturist, 21.43 percent was in agricultural labour and 25 per cent of them were students. In case of small farmers 54.72 per cent of them were agriculturist, 20.75 percent was in agricultural labour and 18.87 per cent of them were students. In case of semi medium farmers 43.24 per cent of the family members were agriculturist, 21.62 per cent were agricultural labourers and 24.32 per cent of them were students. In case of medium farmers 70.37 per cent of the family members were agriculturist, 25.93 per cent of them were students and 3.70 per cent were housewives.  The results showed that 0.67 per cent of them participated in user groups and 99.33 per cent of them have not participated in any local institutions. Landless, marginal, semi medium and medium farmers were found to have no participation 2 in any local institutions. Small farmers were found to participate in one or the other local institutions.  The results indicated that 43.33 per cent of the households possess Katcha house, 20 per cent of the households possess Pucca house, 33.33 per cent of the households possess Semi Pacca house and 3.33 per cent of them possess Thatched house. 100 percent of the landless farmers possess Katcha house.  The results showed that, 86.67 per cent of the households possess TV, 3.33 per cent of the households possess DVD/VCD Player, 63.33 per cent of the households possess Mixer grinder, 10 per cent of the households possess bicycle, 36.67 per cent of the households possess motor cycle, 3.33 per cent of the households possess Auto and 96.67 per cent of the households possess mobile phones.  The results showed that the average value of television was Rs.5673; DVD/VCD Player was Rs. 2000, mixer grinder was Rs.1647, bicycle was Rs.3000, motor cycle was Rs.44545, Auto was Rs. 300000 and mobile phone was Rs.2022.  The results indicated that about 23.33 per cent of the households possess bullock cart, 43.33 per cent of them possess plough, 13.33 per cent of the households possess tractor, 40 per cent of the households possess sprayer, 3.33 per cent of the households possess sprinkler, 56.67 per cent of the households possess weeder and 3.33 per cent of the households possess harvester.  The results showed that the average value of bullock cart was Rs. 14921; the average value of plough was Rs. 1573, the average value of tractor was Rs. 351250, the average value of sprayer was Rs. 3958, the average value of sprinkler was Rs. 200, the average value of weeder was Rs. 213 and the average value of harvester was Rs. 100.  The results indicated that, average own labour men available in the micro watershed was 1.83, average own labour (women) available was 1.13, average hired labour (men) available was 7.87 and average hired labour (women) available was 11.97.  In case of marginal farmers, average own labour men available was 1.67, average own labour (women) was also 1.17, average hired labour (men) was 8.83 and average hired labour (women) available was 16.83. In case of small farmers, average own labour men available was 2.88, average own labour (women) was 1.25, average hired labour (men) was 10.38 and average hired labour (women) available was 10.75. In case of semi medium farmers, average own labour men available was 1.11, average own labour (women) was 1, average hired labour (men) was 7.78 and average hired labour (women) available was 13.56. In medium farmers average own labour men available was 2, average own labour (women) was 1.33, average hired labour (men) was 5 and average hired labour (women) available was 8.33. 3  The results indicated that, 73.33 per cent of the household opined that hired labour was adequate and 26.67 per cent of the household opined that hired labour was inadequate.  The results indicated that, households of the Chikkabagnalu micro watershed possess 11.59 ha (27.32 %) of dry land and 30.82 ha (72.68%) of irrigated land. Marginal farmers possess 2.08 ha (67.41%) of dry land and 1.01 ha (32.59%) of irrigated land. Small farmers possess 4.65 ha (55.41 %) of dry land and 3.74 ha (44.59 %) of irrigated land. Semi medium farmers possess 2.83 ha (19.85 %) of dry land and 11.44 ha (80.15 %) of irrigated land. Medium farmers possess 2.02 ha (12.15 %) of dry land and 14.63 (87.85%) of irrigated land.  The results indicated that, the average value of dry land was Rs. 345,092.56 and average value of irrigated was Rs. 387,934.60. In case of marginal famers, the average land value was Rs. 623,495.16 for dry land and Rs. 1,289,558.23 for irrigated land. In case of small famers, the average land value was Rs. 322,735.19 for dry land Rs. 657,597.40 for irrigated land. In case of semi medium famers, the average land value was Rs. 247,000 for dry land and Rs. 401,910.16 for irrigated land. In case of medium famers, the average land value was Rs. 247,000 for dry land and was Rs. 245,975.65 for irrigated land.  The results indicated that, there were 30 functioning and 8 defunctioning bore wells in the micro watershed.  The results indicated that, bore well was the major irrigation source for 96.66 per cent of the farmers and 3.33 per cent of the households were using tank as a source of irrigation.  The results indicated that on an average the depth of the bore well was 68.15 meters and tank was 2.54 meters.  The results indicated that, in case of marginal farmers there was 1.01 ha of irrigated land, in case of small farmers there was 54.25 ha of irrigated land, semi medium farmers were having 11.12 ha of irrigated land and medium farmers were having 6.88 ha of irrigated land.  The results indicated that, farmers have grown banana (0.40ha), groundnut (4.05ha), maize (19.14ha), paddy (1.62ha), bajra (0.81ha), red gram (1.31ha) in kharif season and also grown red gram (0.44 ha) in Rabi season. Marginal farmers have grown banana, groundnut and maize. Small farmers have grown groundnut, maize and red gram. Semi medium farmers have grown groundnut, maize, paddy and red gram and medium farmers grown groundnut, paddy and maize.  The results indicated that, the cropping intensity in Chikkabagnalu micro watershed was found to be 75.56 per cent. In case of marginal farmers it was 100 per cent, in small farmers it was 83.55, in semi medium farmers it was 88.05 and in medium farmers it was 60.77 per cent. 4  The results indicated that, 93.33 per cent of the households have both bank account and savings respectively. Among marginal farmers 100 percent of them possess both bank account and savings. 87.50 per cent of small farmers possess both bank account and savings correspondingly. Semi medium farmers possess 100 per cent of both bank account and savings respectively and medium category of farmers also possess 100 per cent of bank account and also savings correspondingly.  The results indicated that, 50 per cent of marginal, 12.50 per cent of small, 22.22 per cent of the semi medium and 66.67 per cent of medium farmers have borrowed credit from different sources.  The results indicated that, 40 per cent have availed loan in commercial bank, 20 per cent have availed loan from Cooperative Bank and Grameena Bank, and 10 per cent have availed loan from Friends/Relatives and money lender respectively.  The results indicated that the average amount availed from marginal, small, semi medium and medium farmer were Rs.74250, Rs. 24750, Rs. 28400 and Rs. 71250 respectively. Overall average credit amount availed by households in the micro watershed is 54,235.29.  The results indicated that, 90 per cent of the households have borrowed loan for agriculture production and 10 per cent of the households have borrowed loan for land purchase.  The results indicated that, agriculture production and household consumption were the purpose for which marginal and small farmers borrowed loan from private credit. About 25 percent of loan was taken for agriculture production and 75 per cent of the farmers taken loan for household consumption.  Results indicated that 40 per cent of the households have repaid their institutional credit partially, 50 percent of the households have unpaid their loan and 10 percent of the households have fully paid their loan.  . Results indicated that 100 per cent of the households have repaid their private credit partially.  The results indicated that 30 per cent of the households were opined that they were helped to perform timely agricultural operations, 10 households were opined that easy accessibility of credit and 60 per cent of the farmers did not give any opinion on credit.  The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for bajra was Rs. 56355.49. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 40014.00. The net income from bajra cultivation was Rs. -16341.49, thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.71.  The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for maize was Rs. 44337.39. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 40198.74. The net income from 5 maize cultivation was Rs. -4138.65. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.91.  The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for paddy was Rs. 58309.08. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 55266.25. The net income from paddy cultivation was Rs. -3042.83. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.95.  The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for groundnut was Rs. 60025.95. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 91159.47. The net income from groundnut cultivation was Rs. 31133.51. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.52.  The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for Banana was Rs. 288143.50. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 247000. The net income from Banana cultivation was Rs. -41143.50. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.86.  The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for red gram was Rs. 34365.65. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 58404.41. The net income from red gram cultivation was Rs. 24038.76. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.7.  The results indicated that, 33.33 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate and inadequate respectively. Similarly 60 per cent of the households opined that green fodder was adequate and 6.67 per cent of the households opined that green fodder was inadequate.  The results indicated that, in case of landless farmers, the average income from wage was Rs. 120000, in marginal farmers the average income from service/salary was Rs.61666.67, wage was Rs.15500, agriculture was Rs.32100 and dairy farm was Rs. 8400. In case of small farmers average income from service/salary was Rs. 25000, Wage Rs.12500, agriculture was Rs. 62375 and goat farming was Rs.3750. In semi medium farmers the average income from wage was Rs. 13444.44, agriculture was Rs. 84888.89 and dairy farming was Rs.5222.22. In medium farmers the average income from wage was Rs. 17166.67, agriculture was Rs. 137583.33 and dairy farming was Rs. 11333.33. Over all, the average income from the salary was Rs.19000, wage was Rs.17900, agriculture was Rs.76036.67, dairy farm was Rs.5513.33 and goat farming was Rs.1000.  The results indicated that, in case of landless, the average expenditure from wage Rs. 50,000. In case of marginal farmers the average expenditure from service/salary was Rs.140000, wage was Rs.14750, agriculture was Rs.19666.67 and dairy farm was Rs. 30000. In case of small farmers the average expenditure from service/salary was Rs.37500, wage was Rs.11000, agriculture was Rs.38125 and goat farming was Rs.5000. In semi medium farmers the average expenditure from wage was Rs.7125, agriculture was Rs.50000 and dairy farm was 6 Rs.8333.33. Similarly in medium farmers the average expenditure from wage was Rs. 12000, agriculture was Rs.80000 and dairy farm was Rs.7875.  The results indicated that, sampled households have grown 57 coconut trees, 12 mango trees and 3 Sapota trees in their field.  The results indicated that, 3.33 per cent of the households are interested in growing horticultural crops which include 16.67 per cent medium farmers.  The results indicated that, households have planted 77 neem trees, 2 tamarind tress, 6 acacia trees and 5 banyan trees in their field.  The results indicated that, Bajra, coriander, cotton, cowpea, groundnut, sorghum, paddy, red gram and sunflower crops were sold to the extent of 100 per cent. Only maize was sold to the extent of 56.32 per cent.  The results indicated that, 30 percent of the households have sold their produce to agent/traders, 50 percent of the households have sold their produce to local/village merchant, 30 percent of the households sold their produce in regulated markets and 3.33 percent of the households sold their produce to cooperative marketing society.  The results indicated that 3.33 per cent of the households have used head load as a mode of transport, 6.67 per cent of them have used cart, 90 per cent have used tractor and 10 per cent of them have used truck.  The results indicated that, 66.67 per cent of the households have experienced the soil and water erosion problems i.e. 66.67 percent of marginal farmers, 75 per cent of small farmers, 55.56 per cent semi medium farmers and 83.33 percent medium farmers.  The results indicated that, 60 per cent of the households have shown interest in soil testing i.e. 66.67 per cent of marginal, 62.50 per cent of small, 44.44 per cent of semi medium and 83.33 per cent of medium farmers have shown interest towards soil testing.  The results indicated that, 83.33 percent used fire wood as a source of fuel and 23.33 percent of the households used LPG as a source of fuel.  The results indicated that, piped supply was the source of drinking water for 6.67 per cent, 76.67 per cent of them were using bore well and 16.67 per cents of the households were using lake/tank for drinking water.  The results indicated that, electricity was the major source of light for 93.33 per cent of the households and 3.33 per cent of the households were using kerosene lamp.  The results indicated that, 20 per cent of the households possess sanitary toilet i.e. 100 per cent of landless, 16.67 per cent of marginal, 12.50 per cent of small, 22.22 per cent of semi medium and 16.67 per cent of medium had sanitary toilet facility. 7  The results indicated that, 90 per cent of the sampled households possessed BPL card and 6.67 per cent of the sampled households have not possessed BPL card.  The results indicated that, 46.67 per cent of the households participated in NREGA programme which included 100 per cent of the landless, 16.67 percent of the marginal, 100 per cent of the small, 33.33 per cent of the semi medium and 16.67 percent of the medium farmers.  The results indicated that, cereals, pulses, oilseeds, vegetables, milk, egg and meat were adequate for 96.67 per cent, 46.67 per cent, 53.33 per cent, 43.33 per cent, 73.33 per cent, 36.67 per cent, and 23.33 per cent respectively.  The results indicated that, cereals, pulses, oilseeds, vegetables and milk were inadequate for 3.33 per cent, 53.33 per cent, 26.67 per cent, 40 per cent and 13.33 of the households. Fruits, egg and meat were inadequate for 23.33 per cent of the households.  The results indicated that, Lower fertility status of the soil was the constraint experienced by 3.33 per cent of the households, wild animal menace on farm field (40%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (13.33%), inadequacy of irrigation water (6.67%), high cost of Fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (6.67%), high rate of interest on credit (60%), low price for the agricultural commodities (6.67%), lack of marketing facilities in the area (60%), lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (26.67%), less rainfall (93.33%) and Source of Agri-technology information(Newspaper /TV/Mobile) (63.33 %). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; Quality Protein Maize (QPM): Importance and production requirements Ramesh Kumar, DP Chaudhary, AK Das and Sujay Rakshit ICAR - Indian Institute of Maize Research, Ludhiana Introduction The present scenario of increasing population puts pressure on agriculture not only to increase production and productivity but also the grain quality. It is imperative that increasing production of food crops to ensure food and nutritional security of the nation has become a necessity rather a matter of choice. However, the challenge to meet the growing demand for food seems to be a daunting task due to rapid reduction in agricultural land, reduced availability of water resources and climate change. Moreover, ensuring the nutritional security or improving the nutritional status of the poorer section on sustainable manner is an added challenge. The present food production scenario indicates that much of the future food production is expected to come from coarse cereals, particularly maize because of its highest yield potential as compared to any other food crop. Maize has already credited as queen of cereal and further due to its high content of carbohydrates, fats, proteins and some of the important vitamins and minerals, it has also acquired a well - deserved reputation as 'poor man's nutri - cereal'(Kumar et al .,2012). Maize contributes 15% of the world's protein and 19% of the calories derived from food crops (Vasal SK, 2002). Millions of people in the world, and particularly in developing countries, derive a part of their protein and daily calorie requirements from maize (Mbuya et al.,2011). In recent years the diversified uses of maize as food, feed and as an industrial raw material is also increasing. In addition to this maize is part of the livestock - to - meat cycle across the world (Tanumihardjo et al., 2019). The food processing industries are coming up with new value - added products of corn like flakes, chips, biscuits, sooji etc. Increased demand from consumers has led to higher per capita consumption and demand for maize. Improved growth in Indian economy has increased per capita income thereby improving the purchasing power of its people. The consequence of all these events has led to change in the food habits with an increased non - vegetarian population of the country. The increased non - vegetarian populations had its own cascaded of events on food/feed and meat industries. The increased demand of meat has increased the demand of maize from poultry and piggery feed industries. In this particular context, quality protein maize (QPM) can play a crucial and very important special role in ensuring the food and nutritional security of the country. Nutritive Value of Quality Protein Maize The maize grain on an average contains around 15 % moisture, 8 - 12 % protein, 2 - 4 % fat, 3 % fibre, 67 - 72 % starch and around 1.5% minerals. Hence it is a good source of carbohydrates, fats, proteins and some of the important vitamins and minerals and, therefore, termed as nutri - cereal. Majority of the population depend on cereals for their livelihood and maize is the staple cereal food for several million people, especially in the developing countries across Sub - saharan Africa who derive their >30% of the total dietary protein and >20% of the daily calories requirements from maize as it supplies many macro and micronutrients necessary for human metabolic needs. The kernel protein is made up of five different fractions, viz., albumin 7 %, globulin 5 %, non - protein nitrogen 6 %, prolamine 52 % and glutelin 25% and the left - over 5 % is residual nitrogen. The quality of maize protein is poor due to the presence of large concentration of an alcohol soluble protein fraction, prolamine also known as zein in the endosperm. Zein is very low in lysine and tryptophan content and since this fraction contributes more than 50 percent of the total protein, the maize protein is, therefore, deficient in lysine and tryptophan content. On the other hand, zein fraction contains very high amount of leucine and imbalanced proportion of isoleucine. The ill - proportion of four essential amino acids in normal maize kernels results in poor protein quality of traditional maize kernels affecting its biological value i.e. the availability of protein to the body. Thus, the composition of maize protein has an in - built drawback of being deficient in two essential amino acids, viz., lysine and tryptophan. However, high - quality protein sources, such as eggs, meat, dairy products and legumes provide total or complementary sources of these amino acids, but many rural poor have limited access to these foods. Therefore, populations depending on maize as their staple food generally show the protein deficiency disorders like Marasmus and Kwashiorkar. In addition, maize lacks vitamin B and also due to high concentrations of phytate some minerals in the maize grain have low bioavailability. Therefore, a need was felt to improve the biological value of protein in maize varieties. In early 1960s the breeders at Purdue University obtained the natural mutants of maize which have soft and opaque grains. The biochemical and genetic analysis of mutant kernels revealed that they contain higher concentration of lysine and this nutritionally superior maize was named opaque - 2 maize, after discovering that "opaque - 2" single gene mutation is responsible for the improved protein quality (Mertz et al., 1964). It was mentioned that the original mutants obtained were soft and opaque, but they have some draw - backs like higher susceptibility to storage and ear rot. Therefore, to overcome this problem International Center for Maize and Wheat Improvement (CIMMYT) introduced endosperm modifier genes through continued recurrent selection breeding programme led by Dr. S. K. Vasal and team. As a result, hard endosperm o2 stocks were developed and were designated as quality protein maize (QPM) to distinguish it from soft o2 strains. Quality protein maize (QPM) was created by selecting genetic modifiers that convert the starchy endosperm of an opaque2 (o2) mutant to a hard, vitreous phenotype. However, not all of the hard endosperm o2 lines retained high levels of the critical amino acids. Later the genetic studies on QPM have shown that there are multiple, unlinked o2 modifiers (OPM), but their identity and mode of action are unknown. In QPM the concentration of zein is lowered by 30 percent, as a result the lysine and tryptophan content increases in comparison to maize. The lower contents of leucine in QPM further balance the ratios of leucine to isoleucine (Table1). The balanced proportion of all these essential amino acid in QPM enhances the biological value of protein (Table - 2). The true protein digestibility of maize vis - à - vis QPM is almost same, but the biological value of QPM is just double as compared to maize varieties (Fig1), rather it is highest among all cereals and pulses (Fig1). The reason behind it is that all cereals except QPM are deficient in lysine, an essential amino acid and all pulses are deficient in another essential amino acid methionine. Maize breeders have developed several QPM hybrids by incorporating opaque - 2 mutant gene modifiers in different parental lines. QPM looks and taste like normal maize, but it contains nearly twice the quality of lysine and tryptophan along with balanced amino acid profile. QPM as Food and Nutritional Security In India, tribal population constitutes approximately 10% of the total population and is found in most parts of the country especially in the states of Madhya Pradesh, Assam, Nagaland, Gujarat, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, etc. Thus, a sizable tribal population exist which is economically deprived. Further, most of tribal population depends on maize as their basic diet. In these areas the scope for QPM to ensuring food and nutritional security is paramount. Substituting maize with QPM is a viable option for ensuring their nutritional requirements. Tribal peoples are acknowledged to have very close association with ecosystem and environment because of their dependence on nature directly for daily requirements. However, the problem of malnutrition arises due to inadequate intake of nutrients in the diet. The situations are almost same in some African countries. Several studies are conducted on human beings and animal and are continue to be conducted on positive health benefits of QPM consumption in their daily diet. Gunaratna et al., 2010 reported that consumption of QPM instead of maize leads to an increase in growth rate of height and weight by 12 and 9%, respectively in infants and young children coming from population with mild to moderate under nutrition where maize is the significant component of the diet. This happened due to the higher biological value of QPM as compared to the maize (Table 2). The results are encouraging and based on these results the Indian policy makers can think of providing QPM in the tribal belt or in the areas where there is a problem of malnutrition. Government of India can also think of introducing QPM in public distribution system and QPM based food in mid - day meal in schools and Aanganwadis. Government of India has already started Tribal - Sub Plan (TSP) and under this programme the Directorate of Maize Research has provided QPM hybrid seeds for cultivation in the areas where tribal population is more. Some on - farm trainings have also being organized in these areas for creating awareness to use QPM as staple food. QPM and Animal feed Maize is an integral part of the animal feed used in India and outside. There are several studies where maize has been replaced by QPM as an ingredient of animal feed and encouraging results have been observed in case of broilers, chickens and pigs. Feed trials have repeatedly shown that pigs fed with QPM grow twice as fast as those fed with commercial maize (Krivanek et al., 2007). Some nutritional studies with pigs and chicken diets have shown that performance is improved when QPM is substituted for maize without any additional protein supplement. In broiler diet, the substitution of QPM for maize at a rate of 60% substantially reduces the need for soybean meal and therefore the cost (Subsuban et al., 1990). Similarly, in an experiment with finisher pigs, less soybean meal was needed to maximize performance in diets based on QPM compared with diets having maize. Beef steers fed on high–lysine maize gained faster weight compared to those fed on normal maize. Thus, QPM can reduce the cost of animal feed by decreasing the expenditure incurred on more expensive high protein sources. Linear programming models allow feed companies to identify the cheapest way of providing the minimum dietary requirements for farm stock. Calculations for pig and poultry ration containing maize, QPM, sorghum, soybeans meal and synthetic lysine and tryptophan showed that the usage of QPM instead of maize resulted in saving of 2.8% on chickens feed and 3.4 % on pig feed (Lopez - Pereira, 1992). It is also evident that if QPM was to replace maize in broiler feed in Kenya, the 5% cost reduction would translate into a gain of US dollars 300,000 either as reduced costs for farmers or profit for feed manufactures. In India also it can happen if we use QPM as an ingredient in animal feed. It will help in reducing the cost of feed as well as in increase the growth of the animal either it is broiler, chicken, pig or cattle. The broilers and chickens fed with QPM matured in less time as compared to non QPM fed ones and the farmer benefitted by selling more number of animals in a short span of time. Additionally, QPM fed pigs experience rapid weight gain and are ready for market sooner or can provide an additional quality protein source for small farm families. Impact of QPM Babies and adults consuming QPM are healthier and at lower risk for malnutrition disorders such as marasmus and kwashiorkor. Data from Latin America and Africa showed the role of QPM in reversing the effects of malnutrition in those who are already affected. QPM offers 90% the nutritional value of skim milk, the standard for adequate nutrition value. At a time when UNICEF reports that 1,000,000 infants and small children are starving each month, the inclusion of QPM in daily rations improves health and saves lives. Additionally, QPM fed pigs experience rapid weight gain and are ready for market sooner or can provide an additional quality protein source for small farm families. The commercial success of QPM can be achieved as several QPM hybrids have been developed and tested across varying climatic and growing conditions. At present QPM varieties are grown on roughly 9 million acres (36,000 km²) worldwide. Meanwhile, QPM research and development have spread from Mexico to Latin America, Africa, Europe, and Asia. In Guizhou, the poorest province in China, where QPM hybrid yields are 10% higher than those of other hybrids, and the crop has enabled new pig production enterprises, bringing increased food security and disposable income. In total, the QPM germplasm is being grown worldwide and it is contributing over $1 billion annually to the economies of developing countries. Production requirements Isolation distance The foremost requirement for QPM cultivation is isolation distance of minimum 400 meters. There should not be any other maize crop (non - QPM) in surrounding of 400 meters. The opaque - 2 gene is expressed when it present in homozygous conditions, if any other maize crop is there in surrounding area and pollen of other maize will fall on QPM silk and it will create heterozygous conditions resulting opaque 2 gene will not express that is why it is strongly recommended that we will have to grow QPM crop in isolation or we can grow this in a specified area where only QPM is grown. Soil and climate QPM can be grown successfully in a wide range of soil from loamy sand to clay. But it performs well in high organic matter content soil with high water holding capacity and neutral in pH. Soil should have high drainage capacity as maize is more susceptible to water logging condition. QPM can be successfully grown in varied climatic conditions though out the country in an altitude from mean sea level to 3000 m height. Selection of cultivar A no. of QPM hybrids have been released in India for cultivation namely, HQPM1, HQPM 4, HQPM 5, HQPM 7, Shaktiman 1, Shaktiman 2, Shaktiman 3, Shaktiman 4, Shaktiman 5, Pusa HM 8, Pusa HM 9, Vivek QPM 9 and Pusa Vivek QPM 9 improved. The farmers can select anyone among these hybrids in consultation with local maize breeder/agriculture expert. Sowing time QPM can be grown in all the seasons viz. kharif, rabi and spring. Seed rate Seed rate varied according to seed size, season, sowing method. But on an average 20 kg/ha is optimum for higher yield. Seed treatment To protect the seed from seed and soil borne diseases and pest seed should be treated before sowing with fungicide Bavistin + Captan in 1:1 ratio @ 2 g/kg seed. Method of sowing Line sowing in furrows at 60 - 70 x 20 - 25 cm (row x plant) spacing to obtain the optimum plant population of 70000 to 80000 per ha with sowing depth of 4 - 5 cm is the best method. Nutrient management The requirement of nutrient and fertilizers are as follows: Nutrient Dose Form Requirement (Kg/ha) N 150 - 180 Urea 3255 - 3906 P2O5 70 - 80 SSP 438 - 500 K2O 70 - 80 MOP 116 - 133 Besides that ZnSO4 @ 25 kg/ha and FYM @ 10 t/ha is required for high productivity of QPM. FYM should be applied at 10 - 15 days before sowing. The whole amount of SSP, MOP, ZnSO4 and 10% of urea should apply as basal in furrows. The remaining urea should be applied in three split applications. 20% urea at 4 leaf stage, 40% at 8 leaf stage and remaining 30% at flowering stage. Fertilizers should be applied from both sides of rows. Three days before application of fertilizers light hoeing is needed for optimum use of nutrients by crops. Water management If irrigation facility is available then irrigation should be done in furrows up to 2/3rd height of the ridge at knee high stage, flowering and grain filling stage. Weed management Weed is a serious problem of maize in Tirap district of Arunachal Pradesh which may causes yield loss up to 35%. Therefore, timely weed management is essential for good yield. Pre - emergence herbicide atrazine @ 1.0 - 1.5 kg a.i./ha in 600 litre water is very effective for control of weed. Tembotrione @ 262 ml in 375 litre water is recommended for post - emergence application and it should be applied when the crop is 25 - 30 days old. Earthing up Earthing up is a very essential operation in QPM cultivation. Earthing up should be done when the crop is 35 - 40 days old. Insect Pest Management: Maize stem borer (Chilo partellus) The pest lays eggs on the lower surface of central whorl leaf and the larvae enter the plant from the central whorl and eventually results in dead heat formation Foliar application of Chlorantraniliprole 18.5 SC @ 0.3 ml / litre water in 200 litre water per ha is quite effective The spray should be done at the appearance of symptoms on 2 - 3 weeks old crop. It can also be controlled by release of 8 trico cards (Trichogramma chilonis) per ha at 10 & 17days after germination. Pink stem borer (Sesamia inferens) This insect is more serious in peninsular India during rabi season. Foliar application of Chlorantraniliprole 18.5 SC @ 0.3 ml / litre water in 200 litre water per ha is quite effective. The spray should be done at the appearance of symptoms on 2 - 3 weeks old crop. Shoot fly (Atherigona spp.) It is more serious during spring season in northern India. It lays eggs on emerging seedlings and maggets cuts the growing point resulting in dead heart formation. Seed treatment gaucho 600FS @ 6.0 ml/ kg seed is most effective. Fall Armyworm (Spodoptera frugiperda) It is new exotic pest in maize ecosystem. It feeds heavily on central whorl leaves and it is more serious on crop up to six weeks old. It lays eggs in clusters on upper and lower surface of the leaves. Young larvae cause papery windows on leaves while grown larvae feeds by making bigger irregular wholes, cut the leaf margins and may damage the central whorl leaves also. The infected plants are filled with its excreta. The seed treatment with Cyantraniliprole 19.8% + Thiamethoxam 19.8% FS @ 6 ml/kg of seed offers protection for 15 - 20 days of crop growth against Fall Armyworm is quite effective up to 3 leaves/ 20 days old crop. Release of egg parasitoids viz., Telenomus remus (4000/ ac) or Trichogramma pretiosum @ 50,000/acre at 7 and 14 days following first spray using neem formulation with the trap catch of one moth/day observed continuously. Note: Parasitoid release may be alternated with neem spray at weekly intervals, but not to be applied simultaneously. For management of early instar larvae with a damage level of 5 - 10%, whorl application of Bacillus thuringiensis v. kurstaki formulations 2% (400g/acre) applied @ 2g/l or Metarhizium anisopliae or Beauveria bassiana (1kg/acre) applied @ 5 g/liter is recommended. If infestation is more than 10%, spray with anyone of the recommended insecticides with label claim, viz., Chlorantraniliprole 18.5 SC (80 ml/acre) applied @ 0.4 ml/l or Thiamethoxam 12.6 % + Lambda cyhalothrin 9.5% ZC (50ml/acre) applied @ 0.25 ml/l or Spinetoram 11.7 % SC (100ml/acre) applied @ 0.5 ml/l is recommended. DISEASE MANAGEMENT Turcicum leaf blight: Spray Zineb/Meneb @ 2.5 - 4.0 g/l water 2 - 4 times at 8 - 10 days intervals as a control measure. Maydis leaf blight: It can be controlled by 2 - 4 times spraying of Dithane Z - 75 or Zineb @ 2.4 - 4.0 g/l water at 8 - 10 days intervals after first appearance of the symptoms of disease. Banded leaf and sheath blight: Seed treatment of peat - based formulation (Pseudomonas fluorescence) @ 16 g/kg of seed or soil application @ 7 g/l water as soil drenching or foliar spray of Sheethmar (Validamycin) @ 2.7 ml/l water is effective against this disease. Bird management In some places mature cobs are damaged by birds. In such situations matured cob can be protected from bird damage by tying cobs with leaf of the same plant. Harvesting Harvesting should be done at optimum moisture content (20%) in grain to avoid postharvest loses due to store grain pest and diseases. Harvesting immediately after shower should be avoided. The harvested cobs should be sun dried before shelling and should be shelled at 13 - 14% grain moisture. During storage the moisture content of grain should be 8 - 10 %. Table 1. Essential amino acid content of maize Amino acid Normal (mg per g N) QPM (mg per g N) Lysine Isoleucine Leucine Sulphur amino acid Aromatic amino acid Threonine Tryptophan Valine 177 206 827 188 505 213 35 292 256 193 507 188 502 199 78 298 Table 2. Protein quality of maize Quality measures Normal QPM True protein digestibility Biological value (%) Amount needed for equilibrium 8040 - 47547 92 80 230 References Gunarathna NS, De Groote H, Nestel P, Pixley KV and McCabe GP. (2010). A meta - Analysis of community level studies on quality protein maize. Food Policy. 35: 202 - 210. Krivanek AF, De Groote H, Guraratna NS, Diallo AO and Friesen D. (2007). Breeding and Disseminating quality protein maize (QPM) for Africa. African J. Biotech. 6 (4):312 - 324. Kumar RS, Kumar B, Kaul J, Chikkappa GK, Jat SL, Parihar CM and Kumar A. (2012). Maize research in India - historical prospective and future challenges. Maize Journal. 1(1):1 - 6. Lopez - Pereira MA.(1992). The economics of quality protein maize as an animal feed: Case Studies of Brazil and EI Salvador, CIMMYT, Mexico, DF. Mertz ET. (1970). Nutritive value of corn and its products. In: Inglett GE, editor. Corn: culture, Processing, products. Westport, Conn.: Avi Publishing. p 350–9. Subsuban CP, Olanday PO, Cambel IH. (1990). Advantages of quality protein maize (QPM) In broiler ration. Research and Development Journal (Philippines). 1(1): 5 - 17. Vasal, S.K. (2002). Quality protein maize development: An exciting experience. In Integrated Approaches to Higher Maize Productivity in the New Millennium, Proceedings of the Seventh Eastern and Southern Africa Regional Maize Conference, Nairobi, Kenya,5–11February2002;Friesen,D.,Palmer,A.F.E.,Eds.;CIMMYT(InternationalMaize and Wheat Improvement Center) and KARI (Kenya Agricultural Research Institute): Nairobi, Kenya, pp. 2–9. 3. Mbuya, K.; Nkongolo, K.K.; Kalonji - Mbuyi, A. (2011). Nutritional analysis of quality protein maize varieties selected for agronomic characteristics in a breeding program. Int. J. Plant Breed. Genet. Vol.(5): 317–327. Tanumihardjo, S., McCulley, I., Roh, R., Lopez - Ridaura,S., Palacious - Rojas,N. and Vellakumar, S.(2014). Introgression of low phytic acid locus (lpa2 - 2) into elite maize (Zea mays) inbred through marker Assisted backcross breeding. Aust. J Crop Sci., 8:1224 - 1231. ; Not Available

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Belur-4 microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and these physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the Microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 586 ha in Koppal taluk and district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought - prone with an average annual rainfall of 662 mm, of which about 424 mm is received during south –west monsoon, 161 mm during north-east and the remaining 77 mm during the rest of the year. An area of about 89 per cent is covered by soil and 11 per cent by habitation and water body. The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below  The soils belong to 11 soil series and 17 soil phases (management units) and 5 land management units.  The length of crop growing period is 150 cm) soils.  About 12 per cent loamy (sandy clay loam) and 77per cent has clayey (sandy clay and clay) soils at the surface.  About 71per cent of the area has non-gravelly (200 mm/m) in available water capacity.  An area of about 5 per cent is nearly level (0-1%) and 84 per cent is very gently sloping (1-3%) lands.  An area of about 5 per cent is slightly eroded (e1) and 84 per cent is moderately eroded (e2) lands.  An area of about 1% is moderately acid (pH 5.5-6.0), 3% is slightly acid (pH 6.0-6.5), 6% is neutral (pH 6.5-7.3), 4% is slightly alkaline (pH 7.3-7.8), 7% is moderately alkaline (pH 7.8-8.4), 20% is strongly alkaline (pH 8.4-9.0) and 49% is very strongly alkaline (pH >9.0) in reaction.  The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of the soils are dominantly 0.75%) in 9 per cent area of the soils.  Available phosphorus is low (57 kg/ha) in 36 per cent area of the microwatershed.  Available potassium is medium (145-337 kg/ha) in 39 per cent and high (>337 kg/ha) in 51 per cent area of the soils.  Available sulphur is low (4.5 ppm) in 15 per cent area of the microwatershed.  Available zinc is deficient (0.6 ppm) in 7 per cent area of the microwatershed.  Available manganese and copper is sufficient in the entire area of the microwatershed.  The land suitability for 31 major agricultural and horticultural crops grown in the microwatershed was assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (class S1) and moderately suitable (class S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price, and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 181(31) 236(40) Sapota 4(1) 23(4) Maize 4(1) 402(68) Pomegranate 4(1) 436(74) Bajra 4(1) 391(66) Musambi 70(12) 370(63) Groundnut - 75(13) Lime 70(12) 370(63) Sunflower 70(12) 347(59) Amla 4(1) 484(82) Redgram 4(1) 254(43) Cashew - 27(5) Bengal gram 177(30) 240(41) Jackfruit 4(1) 23(4) Cotton 181(31) 236(40) Jamun 4(1) 166(29) Chilli 4(1) 28(5) Custard apple 181(31) 307(52) Tomato 4(1) - Tamarind 4(1) 190(32) Brinjal - 464(79) Mulberry 4(1) 380(65) Onion - 52(9) Marigold 4(1) 413(70) Bhendi - 465(79) Chrysanthemum 4(1) 413(70) Drumstick 4(1) 461(78) Jasmine 4(1) - Mango 4(1) 10(2) Crossandra 4(1) 206(35) Guava - 27(5)  Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the 5 identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested to these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation and drainage line treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. That would help in supplementing the farm income, provide fodder and fuel, and generate lot of biomass which in turn would help in maintaining the ecological balance and contribute to mitigating the climate change. SALIENT FINDINGS OF THE SURVEY  Results indicated that 35 farmers were sampled in Belur-4 micro watershed among them 14 (40%) were marginal farmers, 11 (31.43%) were small farmers, 3 (8.57%) were semi medium farmers, 2 (5.71%) were medium farmers and 5 (14.29%) landless farmers were also interviewed for the survey.  The data indicated that there was a population of 158 in the studied micro watershed. Among them 91 (57.59%) were men and 67 (42.41%) were women. The average family size of landless farmers was 4.4, marginal and medium farmers were 4.5, small farmer was 4.54, semi medium farmer was 4.3 and medium farmer was 5.  The data indicated that 26 (16.46%) people were in 0-15 years of age, 68 (43.04%) were in 16-35 years of age, 49 (31.01%) were in 36-60 years of age and 15 (9.49%) were above 61 years of age.  The results indicated that the Belur-4 had 27.85 per cent illiterates, 27.85 per cent of them had primary school education, 4.43 per cent of them had middle school, 22.15 per cent of them had high school education, 9.49 per cent of them had PUC education, 0.63 per cent them had Diploma education and 5.70 per cent of them had degree education.  The results indicated that, 65.71 per cent of household heads were practicing agriculture, 20 per cent of the household heads were agricultural labour and 14.29 per cent of the household heads were general labour.  The results indicated that agriculture was the major occupation for 45.57 per cent of the household members, 17.09 per cent were agricultural labourers, 10.13 per cent were general labours, 1.27 percent were in private sector and 25.95 per cent of them were students. In case of landless households 4.55 per cent were agriculturists, 72.73 per cent were general labourers and 22.73 per cent were students. In case of marginal farmers 42.86 per cent were agriculturist, 28.57 per cent were agricultural labourers, 1.59 percent was in private service and 26.98 per cent were students. In case of small farmers 70 per cent of them were agriculturist, 4 per cent were agricultural labourers and 26 per cent of them were students. In case of semi medium farmers 61.54 per cent of the family members were agriculturists and 38.46 per cent were students. In case of medium farmers 10 per cent of the family members were agriculturists, 70 per cent were agriculture labour, 10 per cent were in private service and 10 per cent of them were students.  The results showed that 0.63 per cent of them participated in cooperative bank and 99.37 per cent of them have not participated in any local institutions.  The results indicated that 20 per cent of the households possess thatched house, 57.14 per cent of the households possess katcha house and 25.71 per cent of the households possess Pucca house. 2  The results showed that, 91.43 per cent of the households possess TV, 71.43 per cent possess mixer grinder, 65.71 per cent of the households possess bicycle, 45.71 per cent of the households possess motor cycle, 2.86 per cent possess auto and 97.14 per cent of the households possess mobile phones.  The results showed that the average value of television was Rs.9000, mixer grinder was Rs.1824, bicycle was Rs.3173, motor cycle was Rs.30250, auto was Rs.35000 and mobile phone was Rs.2124.  Results showed that, 14.29 per cent of the households possess bullock cart, 25.71 per cent of the households possess plough, 2.86 per cent of the households possess both power tiller, 17.14 per cent of the households possess sprayer, 94.29 per cent of the households possess weeder and 8.57 per cent possess tractor, harvester and chaff cutter.  The results showed that the average value of bullock cart was Rs.19600; the average value of plough was Rs. 1229, the average value of power tiller was Rs. 25000, the average value of tractor was Rs. 366666, the average value of sprayer was Rs. 3166, the average value of weeder was Rs. 136, the average value of harvester was Rs. 16400 and the average value of chaff cutter was Rs.2666.  The results indicated that, 11.43 per cent of the households possess bullocks and 8.57 per cent of the households possess local cow. Around 14.29 per cent of the marginal farmers and 33.33 per cent of the semi medium farmers possess bullock, 27.27 per cent of small farmers and 33.33 per cent of semi medium farmers possess local cow. Medium farmers and landless farmers did not possess any livestock.  The results indicated that, average own labour men available in the micro watershed was 1.60, average own labour (women) available was 1.27, average hired labour (men) available was 12.90 and average hired labour (women) available was 9.37.  In case of marginal farmers, average own labour men available was 1.57, average own labour (women) was also 1.29, average hired labour (men) was 10.36 and average hired labour (women) available was 6.71. In case of small farmers, average own labour men available was 1.64, average own labour (women) was 1.27, average hired labour (men) was 15.45 and average hired labour (women) available was 11.82. In case of semi medium farmers, average own labour men available was 1.33, average own labour (women) was 1, average hired labour (men) was 18.33 and average hired labour (women) available was 15. In medium farmers average own labour men available was 2, average own labour (women) was 1.5, average hired labour (men) was 8.50 and average hired labour (women) available was 6.  The results indicated that, 85.71 per cent of the household opined that hired labour was adequate.  The results indicated that, households of the Belur-4 micro watershed possess 23.16 ha (66.76%) of dry land and 11.53 ha (33.24%) of irrigated land. Marginal farmers possess 9.87 ha (100%) of dry land. Small farmers possess 13.28 ha (88.77%) of dry 3 land and 1.68 ha (11.23%) of irrigated land. Semi medium farmers possess 3.78 ha (100%) of irrigated land. Medium farmers possess 6.07 ha (100%) of irrigated land.  The results indicated that, the average value of dry land was Rs. 353,967.14 and average value of irrigated land was Rs. 407,476.31. In case of marginal famers, the average land value was Rs. 536,516.39 for dry land. In case of small famers, the average land value was Rs. 218,251.07 for dry land and Rs. 714,216.85 for irrigated land. In case of semi medium famers, the average land value was Rs. 423,126.34 for irrigated land. In case of medium famers, the average land value was Rs. 312,866.67 for irrigated land.  The results indicated that, there were 7 functioning bore wells in the micro watershed.  The results indicated that, bore well was the major irrigation source for 20 per cent of the farmers.  The results indicated that on an average the depth of the bore well was 19.59 meters.  The results indicated that, in case of small farmers there was 1.68 ha of irrigated land, semi medium farmers were having 3.64 ha of irrigated land and medium farmers were having 6.07 ha of irrigated land. On an average there was 11.40 ha irrigated land.  The results indicated that, farmers have grown maize (12.66 ha), onion (3.77 ha), cotton (3.77 ha), sunflower (3.64 ha), groundnut (1.21 ha), red gram (0.89 ha), bajra (0.81 ha) and navane (0.40 ha) in kharif season. Marginal farmers have grown maize, onion, sorghum, cotton, sunflower, groundnut, red gram, bajra and navane. Small farmers have grown maize, onion, sorghum and sunflower. Semi medium farmers have grown onion and cotton. Medium farmers have grown maize and cotton.  The results indicated that, the cropping intensity in Belur-4 micro watershed was found to be 95.02 per cent. In case of marginal farmers it was 100 per cent, in small farmers it was 99.32, in semi medium farmers it was 100 and in medium farmers it was 73.33 per cent.  The results indicated that, 82.86 per cent of the households have bank account and 57.14 per cent possess savings. Among marginal farmers 100 percent of them possess bank account and 71.43 per cent possess savings. 90.91 per cent of small farmers possess bank account and 72.73 per cent of them possess savings. In case of semi medium farmers 100 percent of them possess bank account and 66.67 per cent possess savings. Medium category of farmers possesses 100 per cent of bank account.  The results indicated that, 78.57 per cent of marginal, 90.91 per cent of small, 66.67 per cent of the semi medium and 50 per cent of medium farmers have borrowed credit from different sources. 4  The results indicated that, 41.67 per cent have availed loan from Grameena bank and commercial bank respectively. 4.51 per cent have availed loan from money lender and 12.50 per cent availed loan from SHGs/CBOs.  The results indicated that, marginal, small, semi medium and medium have availed Rs. 95,272.73, Rs. 90,500, Rs. 115,000 and Rs. 45,000 respectively. Overall average credit amount availed by households in the micro watershed is 92,833.33.  The results indicated that, 95 per cent of the households have borrowed loan for agriculture production and 5 per cent for animal husbandry.  The results indicated that, 75 per cent of the households have borrowed loan for agriculture production.  Results indicated that 10 percent of the households have paid their institutional credit partially, 85 per cent of the household unpaid their loan and 5 per cent of the households fully paid their loan.  Results indicated that 75 percent of the households have paid their private credit partially and 25 per cent of the household unpaid their loan.  The results indicated that 45 per cent of the households were opined that they were helped to perform timely agricultural operations, 50 per cent of them opined that higher rate of interest and 5 per cent of the households opined that loan amount was adequate to fulfill the requirement.  The results indicated that 5 per cent of the households opined that loan amount was adequate to fulfill the requirement and 50 per cent of them opined that higher rate of interest.  The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for redgram was Rs. 25715.70. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 55575.00. The net income from redgram cultivation was Rs. 29859.30, thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:2.16.  The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for maize was Rs. 22941.28. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 23763.09. The net income from maize cultivation was Rs. 821.81. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.04.  The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for sorghum was Rs. 19778.23. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 31619.74. The net income from sorghum cultivation was Rs. 11841.51. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.6.  The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for groundnut was Rs. 50306.19. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 55219.94. The net income from groundnut cultivation was Rs. 4913.75. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.1.  The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for navane was Rs. 54111.61. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 30875.00. The net income from 5 navane cultivation was Rs. -23236.61. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.57.  The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for cotton was Rs. 37865.94. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 80897.65. The net income from cotton cultivation was Rs. 43031.71. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:2.14.  The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for onion was Rs. 39372.89. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 105261.80. The net income from onion cultivation was Rs. 65888.91. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:2.67.  The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for sunflower was Rs. 29680.71. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 47277.63. The net income from sunflower cultivation was Rs. 17596.92. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.59.  The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for Bajra and Red gram was Rs. 26449.29. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 57427.50 The net income from Bajra and Red gram cultivation was Rs. 30978.21. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:2.17.  The results indicated that, 17.14 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate and green fodder was adequate respectively.  The results indicated that, in land less farmers, the average income from wage was Rs.270800. In case of marginal farmers the average income from wage was Rs.33071.43, agriculture was Rs. 38,221.43 and dairy farm was Rs. 214.29. In case of small farmers the average income from service/salary was Rs. 18,727.27, wage was Rs. 36,181.82 and agriculture was Rs. 56,122.73. In semi medium farmers the average income from wage was Rs.10000, agriculture was Rs. 135,733.33 and dairy farm was Rs. 6,750. In medium farmers the average annual income from wage was Rs. 25,000 and agriculture was Rs. 560,000.  The results indicated that, in case of land less the average annual expenditure from wage was Rs.65000, In marginal farmers the average expenditure from wage was Rs.24107.14, agriculture was Rs.23714.29 and dairy farm was Rs.500. In small farmers the average expenditure from service/salary was Rs.80000, wage was Rs.28900 and agriculture was Rs.33727.27. In semi medium farmers the average expenditure from wage was Rs.24000, agriculture was Rs.69666.67 and dairy farm was Rs.10000. In case of medium farmers the average expenditure from wage was Rs.10000 and agriculture was Rs.85000.  The results indicated that, households have planted 4 teak trees, 71 neem trees, 10 tarmind trees, 1 acacia tree and 1 Banyan trees in their field and also planted 404 neem trees in their back yard. 6  The results indicate that, households have an average additional investment capacity of Rs. 1485.71 for land development, Rs.400 for irrigation facility, Rs.1000 for improved crop production and Rs.200 for improved livestock management. Marginal farmers have an average additional investment capacity of Rs. 2285.71 for land development, Rs.571.43 for irrigation facility, Rs. 1500 in improved crop production and Rs.285.71 for improved live stock management. Small farmers have an average additional investment capacity of Rs.727.27 for land development, Rs.545.45 for improved crop production and Rs.272.73 for livestock management. Medium farmers have an average additional investment capacity of Rs.6000 for land development, Rs.3000 for irrigation facility and Rs.4000 for improved crop production.  The results indicated that for 17.14 per cent of the households were dependent on loan from the bank for land development respectively. For irrigation facility 5.71 per cent of household were dependent on loan from the bank. 17.14 per cent of the household were depending on loan from bank for improved crop production. 8.57 per cent of the household were dependent on loan from bank for improved livestock management.  The results indicated that, bajra, cotton, groundnut, maize, navane, onion, red gram, sorghum and sunflower crops were sold to the extent of 100 per cent.  The results indicated that, 80 percent of the households have sold their produce to regulated market and 8.57 per cent of the household sold their produce to cooperative marketing society.  The results indicated that, 5.71 per cent of households used cart as mode of transport, 71.43 per cent of households used tractor as mode of transport and 11.43 per cent used truck for transportation of their produce.  The results indicated that, 85.71 per cent of the households have shown interest in soil testing.  The results indicated that, 11.43 per cent of the households have experienced the soil and water erosion problems i.e. 21.43 percent of marginal and 50 percent of medium farmers.  The results indicated that, 97.14 percent of the household used fire wood as a source of fuel and 2.86 per cent of the household used LPG as source of fuel.  The results indicated that, piped supply was the major source of drinking water for 100 per cent of the households.  The results indicated that, electricity was the major source of light for 100 per cent of the households.  The results indicated that, 40 per cent of the households possess sanitary toilet i.e. 40 per cent of the landless, 35.71per cent of marginal, 27.27 per cent of small, 66.67 per cent of semi medium and 100 per cent of medium farmers had sanitary toilet facility. 7  The results indicated that, 100 per cent of the sampled household's possessed BPL card.  The results indicated that, 37.14 per cent of the households participated in NREGA programme which included 100 per cent of the landless, 7.14per cent of the marginal farmers, 27.27 per cent of the small farmers, 100 per cent of the semi medium farmers and 50 percent of the medium farmers.  The results indicated that, cereals and milk were adequate for 100 per cent of the household respectively. Pulses and egg were adequate for 97.14 per cent of the household respectively. Oilseed and vegetables were adequate for 2.86 per cent of the household respectively. Fruits and meat were adequate for 8.57 per cent and 62.86 per cent of the households.  The results indicated that, pulses, oilseed, vegetables, fruits, egg and meat were inadequate for 2.86 per cent, 97.14 per cent, 94.29 per cent, 91.43 per cent, 2.86 per cent and 37.14 per cent of the household respectively.  The results indicated that, Lower fertility status of the soil was the constraint experienced by 80 per cent of the households, wild animal menace on farm field (74.29%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (68.57%), inadequacy of irrigation water (68.57%), high cost of Fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (65.71%), high rate of interest on credit (65.71%), low price for the agricultural commodities (71.43%), lack of marketing facilities in the area (62.86%), inadequate extension services (82.86 %), lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (85.71%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Deane Kingsford; Deane Kingsford, July 2, 2013 ; Business at the Crossroads - Ogden City is a project to collect oral histories related to changes in the Ogden business district since World War II. From the 1870s to World War II, Ogden was a major railroad town, with nine rail systems. With both east-west and north-south rail lines, business and commercial houses flourished as Ogden became a shipping and commerce hub. ; The following is an oral history interview with Deane Kingsford. The interview was conducted on July 2, 2013, by Lorrie Rands. Kingsford discusses his time in World War II and his memories of 25th Street. ; 18p.; 29cm.; 2 bound transcripts; 4 file folders. 1 sound disc: digital; 4 3/4 in. ; Deane Kingsford Deane Kingsford July 2, 2013 Oral History Program Deane Kingsford Interviewed by Lorrie Rands 2 July 2013 Oral History Program Weber State University Stewart Library Ogden, Utah Deane Kingsford Interviewed by Lorrie Rands 2 July 2013 Copyright © 2014 by Weber State University, Stewart Library Mission Statement The Oral History Program of the Stewart Library was created to preserve the institutional history of Weber State University and the Davis, Ogden and Weber County communities. By conducting carefully researched, recorded, and transcribed interviews, the Oral History Program creates archival oral histories intended for the widest possible use. Interviews are conducted with the goal of eliciting from each participant a full and accurate account of events. The interviews are transcribed, edited for accuracy and clarity, and reviewed by the interviewees (as available), who are encouraged to augment or correct their spoken words. The reviewed and corrected transcripts are indexed, printed, and bound with photographs and illustrative materials as available. Archival copies are placed in Special Collections. The Stewart Library also houses the original recording so researchers can gain a sense of the interviewee's voice and intonations. Project Description Business at the Crossroads - Ogden City is a project to collect oral histories related to changes in the Ogden business district since World War II. From the 1870s to World War II, Ogden was a major railroad town, with nine rail systems. With both east-west and north-south rail lines, business and commercial houses flourished as Ogden became a shipping and commerce hub. After World War II, the railroad business declined. Some government agencies and businesses related to the defense industry continued to gravitate to Ogden after the war—including the Internal Revenue Regional Center, the Marquardt Corporation, Boeing Corporation, Volvo-White Truck Corporation, Morton-Thiokol, and several other smaller operations. However, the economy became more service oriented, with small businesses developing that appealed to changing demographics, including the growing Hispanic population. ____________________________________ Oral history is a method of collecting historical information through recorded interviews between a narrator with firsthand knowledge of historically significant events and a well-informed interviewer, with the goal of preserving substantive additions to the historical record. Because it is primary material, oral history is not intended to present the final, verified, or complete narrative of events. It is a spoken account. It reflects personal opinion offered by the interviewee in response to questioning, and as such it is partisan, deeply involved, and irreplaceable. ____________________________________ Rights Management Special Collections All literary rights in the manuscript, including the right to publish, are reserved to the Stewart Library of Weber State University. No part of the manuscript may be published without the written permission of the University Librarian. Requests for permission to publish should be addressed to the Administration Office, Stewart Library, Weber State University, Ogden, Utah, 84408. The request should include identification of the specific item and identification of the user. It is recommended that this oral history be cited as follows: Kingsford, Deane, an oral history by Lorrie Rands, 2 July 2013, WSU Stewart Library Oral History Program, Special Collections, Stewart Library, Weber State University, Ogden, UT. iii Abstract: The following is an oral history interview with Deane Kingsford. The interview was conducted on July 2, 2013, by Lorrie Rands. Kingsford discusses his time in World War II and his memories of 25th Street. LR: Today is July 2, 2013. We are in the home of Mr. Deane Kingsford talking about his remembrances of the Ogden canteen, his time in WWII and his memories of 25th Street. Thank you, Mr. Kingsford for allowing me in your home. Tell me about where you were born and what brought you to Ogden. DK: I was born in Ogden and my family lived at 33rd Street and Washington Boulevard, which used to be clear out in the sticks. It was a street that went down to the city dumps, so the pavement on Washington Boulevard stopped at 36th Street and there was a dirt road that went out to where the hospital is now. A lot of people don't realize that Ogden wasn't very big, but it was still the second largest city in Utah. I think the population was something like 140,000. I went to Washington School and then to Ogden High School. I was a good student at Ogden High School and my sister and I graduated together by virtue that I happened to be home when they had the graduation ceremony. So, when I took my cap and gown off I was in uniform and that made me feel good. Realizing that I would probably be drafted anyway, by volunteering beforehand I had a choice to be in the Army or Navy and so forth. I chose to be in the Navy and they sent me to Farragut, Idaho, which is just a hop, skip and a jump from the Canadian and United States border. It was during the winter and it was cold up there. While I was there, my brother and one of my teachers were in the 1 barracks right next to me, so I got a chance to see my brother. A lot of my friends that I went to Ogden High with were there as well. From there, they sent me to Chicago where I was taught all the information about how to be a code operator for radio at the University of Chicago. It was pretty good duty. We were in a barracks that was a fraternity house and it was like a big donut. In the center was a big yard. The food was absolutely fantastic and they took us down to an old church building to learn code and all of that information. After learning the code they sent us to Schumacher, California to a military dispersing unit. Everybody would go through Schumacher, which was southeast of Oakland, California. I'd go up every morning to see what the schedule was and who got drafted into what unit. I met a guy who said, "Are you from Ogden, Utah?" I said, "Yes." He said, "Well, I'll tell you what, I'm from Ogden too and I'll give you this good deal called beach battalion. They'll just give you a rifle and you'll walk up and down a section of the beach in California to make sure that there are no Japanese that have landed there." I listened to him even though I should have been very suspicious. I signed the papers volunteering for duty in beach battalion. In those days, beach battalion was a volunteer outfit just like the Navy Seals. We were a very close-knit organization. All of these books that I have here are training manuals and list every guy that was ever in beach battalion. It was a very special unit. They had been to North Africa, Sicily, Salerno and Normandy. Then they came over to the United States and according to the system that was used then, they were a very unique outfit and some of the 2 guys like me were talked into it. We were the 400th unit, which is now called the Seals. After getting in this outfit, they shipped me from Camp Pendleton in Oceanside, California to a camp that's now been overrun with beautiful homes in San Diego. I have trouble remembering the name of that, but it was just an outgoing unit that you'd stay at for three or four days. They put me on an APD, which is an Attack Personnel Destroyer and I left Sand Diego. We didn't get out hardly beyond shot space and we had an emergency call for a ship that had been attacked by a submarine and we went out. Somewhere between Pearl Harbor and San Diego, we came upon this ship that was guarding a couple of ships that didn't have any guns or anything on it. We followed them into Pearl Harbor, which was the dispersing point for all of the ships that were going out into the Pacific area. We had problems when we went after this ship and our engines were in as tough shape as the ones that we were going to help. We went into Pearl Harbor and they had all of the ships ready to go if there was an invasion. While I was there, I was injured and my hand was put in a cast. They wanted to cut my thumb off because I had broken my thumb playing basketball. We had a good outfit there and learned a lot and trained a lot and then they had what they call an incident at the Westlock. Westlock was kept very secret. It was an invasion fleet that they were going to use in the Pacific area. While we were there, they had a terrible experience similar to what happened to Pearl Harbor. Westlock was pretty damaged and I have books entitled, "The true experience of the story of Westlock." They lost more people than they did at 3 Pearl Harbor when it was attacked. A lot of the information I've documented with photographs and military pictures and so on. As you can see, my floor is loaded with photographs of some of the people that I knew and met like George Whalen and Paul Valentine. Some of the information I've got is stuff that nobody has ever seen. I kept it hidden away. My wife never got a chance to see it. They invited me down and presented me with 13 medals at the city and county building just one week after my wife passed away. Although she didn't see a lot of this stuff, I think she knew some of the things and some of the places that I've been. When we got to Zamboanga, at the tip of one of the main islands of the Philippines, I saw the first casualties and atrocities of some of the people that were involved in the war. It was pretty hard for me to take and I still have nightmares of some of the things that I saw. I saw an American come out shoot a Japanese prisoner that was in handcuffs and blinders as he walked by a mess tent. It had a definite effect on me. I wasn't used to that kind of stuff. We went to the old action in the Philippines and when we went into the Orient and into Hiro Wan, we were just east of Hiroshima and the admiral wanted to go in. He was kind of a photographic nut, that's what we used to call him. The Chicago Press article that's in the corner there was when he was awarded some of his accommodations. Every place that he went I had to go with him because he had to have a communication person with him at all times so that if he had to make a decision, it had to be quick and precise. I spent a lot of time with him and he and I ended up being the first two people to go into Hiroshima. He wanted to see what it was all about. We landed in Hiro Wan which was about 20 miles from 4 Hiroshima. He tried to go up there and the very troops that we landed stopped him and he said, "You can't stop me, I'm an admiral." The soldier who was probably just a buck private put his gun up and said, "It ain't going make no difference because you're not going by me. My orders are to keep anybody from going up." So, the admiral came back to the ship and he was kind of put out. He said, "Well, they can stop me on land, but they can't stop me on water." He got a few of his staff together and we got into a BP Vogue landing craft and up we went. We went around to the water and landed it on the outskirts of Hiroshima. He took most of the pictures of Hiroshima that were in Life magazine and a lot of the stories that went with it. He was a darn good photographer and he had no idea what it would stir. They have had me talk about my experiences at different churches and meetings that they had for the military. My memory is, sadly to say, not as good as it used to be and I keep the stuff that I've got. There are pictures and I've got a flare pistol that I shot in the air when the war ended. I took the pistol off of the torpedo boat that was what they called a PT. It was a fast speed boat that had a couple of torpedoes on it and I think the President of the United States was on a boat like that. I didn't have the ability to get photographs like the admiral did, so I made drawings. My drawings are there and I have drawings of the night that the war ended. They almost match in detail of what it looked like. I went to a lot of places. I went into Japan from both sides that they were trying to block the Japanese fleet in the Inland Sea. They had ships that were every bit as deadly as anything that we had. Every place we went to, we had to 5 get different money. They had a ritual in the service where every place you'd go you'd get to trade money. They had what they called a short snorter. You'd take the money and tape it together in a big string and when they tried to find out who was the old salt out of the group of Navy people. The guy that had the longest short snorter was the old salt. So, I had my short snorter and I got a lot of money down to where I got a one cent bill. Some of the bills are remarkably well-made so that they couldn't be duplicated. I have a Japanese gun that I brought back and it's got a folding bayonet on it. They've had me show that gun to a lot of folks. I have a trunk load of stuff out in my garage. I've got bayonets here on the floor and a code key similar to the type that we used. I use it to practice my code once in a while. Code is like speaking a language. Once you learn it, it stays with you pretty well. I can still sit there and thump out some pretty good messages. LR: So it's like Morse code? DK: Yes, it's Morse code. There are lots of pictures of George Whalen and me. He was a wonderful guy. I have some of the pictures of him when he was given the medals that he got. George was the kind of guy who could have been buried in a national cemetery, but he elected to be buried here in Ogden. They brought in the whole staff that normally buries people in the national cemetery. Occasionally, I'll go out to his grave. LR: While you were a soldier during World War II, your mother worked at the canteen at the Union Station. 6 DK: Yes, in fact, Mom had three people in the family that were in the military. The brother that was just a little older than me was in the Office of Strategic Service, which is a highly documented unit that helped in keeping secrets of war nature from getting in the wrong hands. My other brother, Richard, was a hospital foreman in an Oakland hospital a few miles away from Oakland, California. Incidentally, that's where I was sent. It was an outgoing unit and I was sent there before I got into this unit and I got my discharge also from there. I've kept most of the photographs and the histories that have been written in book form by some of the family. I get a little bit broken up when I start through that stuff. It's tough to take and the tears roll down my cheeks just like it was happening yesterday. There are my marine greens. I was in the Navy, but a lot of people don't realize that the Marine Corps is part of the Navy. I had a lot of respect for the Marines and they respected us. We worked very well together. I liked all of those guys. They were all my friends. I've got pictures of me when I still had hair on my head and pictures of my family. With four of us in the military at one time or another, it was quite an experience. LR: Why do you think your mother worked at the canteen? Was it because all of your brothers were in the military? DK: Well, there were a lot of people that volunteered. In my window here, there is a little gadget sticking up that holds a flag. There's another gentleman down a couple of doors and was an ex-Marine who has his flag up. I had a lot of friends that were in the military like Fosse Filega, who was a little boy when all that came down, but he was from the islands and he said a lot of that still rubs off. He 7 collects military things and I've given him a lot of my stuff. He's been a good friend. LR: You have a great story of coming through Ogden and being able to see your mom while she was working at the canteen. DK: Everybody in the family was doing their thing. Mom worked in the canteen and would meet the trains. They had a huge system and they'd give the GI's a cup of coffee or some of them wanted soda pop and donuts. Mom spent a lot of time there and she gave a lot of time for the military boys. She called them, "Her boys." A lot of guys would break down and they knew they were heading west and they'd send them through Ogden down to Oakland. Mom would go there every day and everybody in our family gave a lot to the servicemen. It wasn't unusual to come home to the GI's at our house. My mother put in the hours and she'd come home and she had people stopping at the house. It didn't make a difference whether they were wearing khaki or blue, they were GI's and they were all good guys. My brother, Eugene, being in the OSS, had an address that was in Washington D.C., but I suspected that was just an address for his mail. They picked a lot of L.D.S. guys for those units because they knew when to keep their mouth shut and they were pretty trained individuals. I got a lot of stuff from George Whalen. I have one of his books and they only printed a few of them. When I say a few, I'm talking about maybe four or five books. I had so many people that wanted to borrow my book on the quiet hero that Mrs. Whalen talked George into getting a box-full of them printed. There are 8 not too many guys like that that are still living. They gave everything they have and then gave their lives. LR: There is a moment that you were able to surprise your mom at the canteen, do you remember that? DK: She was giving everybody a cup of coffee and she was not expecting me there. I was on a troop train and we stopped at the canteen. Before she even realized what was happening, I had my arms around her giving her a big hug and surprised her. She worked at the canteen for hours and hours and she was proud of it. LR: I have one last question for you. You've been more than generous with your time and I love the stories that you've told. My last question is; what memories do you have of 25th Street? DK: One of the memories I have is of the porters and waiters. These were good, honest hard-fighting African American people. They were wonderful guys. They took people into the one building that was on the south side of the street in the last building. In the basement, they had a place for the African American people and they had some wonderful times there. When different entertainers would come through on the train they'd have them over there. What do you call it when they just get together and have a great big music thing? LR: A jam? DK: Yes, like a jam. They were all happy people and wonderful guys. I knew a lot of them and they were good guys to team up with. By nature, they were big guys 9 too and when you're as small as I am and looking for help, that's the kind of guy you'd want to have help you. I got along well with those guys. LR: Did it bother you that they were segregated? DK: During the war, it wasn't near as bad as I'd seen before. When things got tough and you were lying in the dirt, you were not checking to see if a guy is African American or happens to be a Mexican. You were just lucky you were not alone. You had people with you. I gave them the best shot I could and treated them like my mother taught me to do. She had a very kindly personality and lived a life where it didn't make any difference whether the guy happened to be African American, Mexican or Native American. She was born and raised on a reservation in Laramie, Wyoming, so she got used to it and she could smile and hug those guys just as good as the next one. She had a love for people. I was so dog-gone young when I went in the service. I've got a picture of the whole company and I think I was the youngest guy in there. When you go in at 17-years- old, you think you know everything that's happening in the world and then you find out there are lots of things you don't. LR: Mr. Kingsford, I really appreciate your time and the memories that you've shared with me today. I look forward to getting this all worked up for you into a packet. DK: Well, how about that? 10

IntroducciónEl fin de este trabajo es analizar el paper "Europeization of Public Administration: Effects of the EU on the Central Administration in the Nordic States" escrito por Per Lægreid, Runolfur Steinthorsson y Baldur Thorhallsson en el año 2002 (1). El mismo forma parte del proyecto de investigación "Representative Democracy, Administrative Reforms and Europeanizations". En dicho trabajo se investiga cómo la integración a la Unión Europea afecta la administración pública de los países nórdicos. El cuerpo del trabajo contará con dos partes. En la primera se describirá el problema de investigación, la metodología empleada y los resultados obtenidos. En la segunda, realizaremos una crítica del trabajo haciendo especial énfasis en la adecuación de la estrategia metodológica con el problema de investigación.1. Problema de investigación y diseño metodológico 1.1. El problema de investigación El foco de este paper se centra en estudiar la europeización de los países nórdicos, distinguiendo aquellos que se han unido a la Unión Europea (Suecia y Finlandia) de los que no lo han hecho (Islandia y Noruega). La relación de estos últimos con dicha organización internacional se encuentra regulada por el Acuerdo Económico Europeo (2), por el cual debieron adaptar sus leyes a la Unión Europea para conseguir que su legislación fuera concordante con la misma.Antes de adentrarnos en lo expuesto en el artículo, resulta importante definir qué se entiende por "europeización", ya que éste se basa en el estudio de los efectos de la misma. Los autores definen "europeización" como la consecuencia que tiene el proceso de integración en la administración pública de los países miembro. En este sentido, integrarse a la UE implica que los países deben adaptar las instituciones internas y los aparatos administrativos.El objetivo es explorar las similitudes y las diferencias en la administración central entre los países miembros de la UE y los países que están adheridos al EEA. Concomitantemente se estudia las disimilitudes encontradas entre los países que tienen la misma forma de asociación a la organización, ya que aún tratándose del mismo vínculo, los procesos que se llevan a cabo son distintos. El centro de la investigación se encuentra en el estudio del cambio producido en la administración interna por el impacto de la Unión Europea y hasta qué punto dicha organización la afecta, siendo esa su pregunta general de investigación (3). A la vez, se plantean ciertas preguntas específicas como el efecto que tiene sobre las tareas diarias, la estructura y el comportamiento administrativo interno, las implicaciones que tiene en el aparato administrativo, y lo que pasa con las unidades políticas organizadas cuando éstas se convierten en parte de una unidad mayor. Los autores tienen el objetivo de analizar por qué se da lo observado, es decir, cómo pueden explicarse los cambios de la administración y las diferencias entre los países.La hipótesis de los autores es que existe un cambio en la administración interna de los países que se acercan a la Unión Europea, y que dicho cambio es distinto en cada Estado. Luego, plantea ciertas hipótesis para explicar por qué el cambio en las administraciones internas es distinto. Así, establece que existen factores que explican esa diferencia, planteando como principal causa de las diferencias el hecho de que se trata de distintas formas de integración, debido a que existen algunos que se unen a ella y otros que solamente firman un acuerdo económico. Al haber diferencias también entre los países que cuentan con la misma modalidad de integración, plantea posibles explicaciones para las diferencias que existen, por lo que esboza otra hipótesis que intenta explicar el cambio por factores internos de cada país como el tamaño de la administración, la anticipación a los cambios que conllevará la europeización, las características y tradiciones de la administración interna y la experiencia previa del país en su trato con la comunidad internacional.1.2. Diseño metodológico En cuanto a la estrategia metodológica utilizada por los autores, se trata de un estudio cuantitativo. El estudio se vale de encuestas para confirmar sus hipótesis, siguiendo un razonamiento deductivo, ya que parte de la teoría y realiza una observación. Un problema que abordaremos más adelante es que el estudio pretende dos cosas: establecer que existe una relación entre los cambios detectados en la administración y la forma de vinculación con la Unión Europea y explicar el por qué de esta relación. Sin embargo, a partir de la estrategia metodológica escogida solo se puede establecer que hay cambios diferentes pero no es posible establecer el por qué de dichos cambios. Mediante la encuesta realizada es posible determinar modalidades de cambio diferente, las explicaciones que los autores plantean a posteri son explicaciones post-hoc. Es decir, interpretaciones de los resultados que no están guiadas por la puesta a prueba de una hipótesis específica sobre el cambio. Por el contrario, son explicaciones que recurren a variables que quedan fuera del diseño de investigación como ser la variable "tradiciones administrativas". El diseño que escogen los autores es el cuasi- experimental (4). Esto es así porque a la hora de hacer el estudio cuentan con dos tipos de relacionamientos con la organización (UE / EEA). Esto hace que cuenten con dos grupos conformados, lo que es una característica del diseño cuasi-experimental, en el que los objetos del estudio ya se encuentran divididos naturalmente, cada uno ha recibido un tratamiento distinto, pero el investigador no ha tenido influencia alguna sobre dicho tratamiento (Punch, 2005)En este caso, la variable independiente es la integración a la Unión Europea y la variable dependiente es el cambio en las estructuras administrativas internas.Además, utiliza como herramienta el método comparativo, lo que es natural ya que el mismo está implícito dentro del método cuasi experimental. Elige cuatro países que comparten ciertas características como la cultura, la región geográfica, aspectos del gobierno y el momento que eligen para acercarse a la Unión Europea, y los divide en dos grupos diferenciándolos según la forma de relacionarse con la Organización. Por esto, decimos que utiliza el método de la diferencia (Przeworski, Teune, 1972) que consta de comparar grupos que son muy similares en un conjunto de factores. Esto permite aventurar que aquellos pocos factores que son diferentes (entre los países) son los que explican los resultados diferentes en la variable dependiente. En este caso el factor que hace la diferencia en el cambio de la administración es la forma de integración a la Unión Europea.1.3. La encuestaLa técnica utilizada por los investigadores fue la encuesta, la cual se realizó dentro de todos los departamentos ministeriales y directoriales de cada uno de los países nórdicos. Fue realizada en 1999 y 2000 en Islandia, y en 1998 en el resto de los países estudiados. Mediante un estandarizado y sistemático cuestionario, con respuestas establecidas para las cuales se daba alternativas, se le preguntaba a cada uno de los departamentos acerca de sus propias experiencias en su unión a la Unión Europea o al European Economic Agreement. Los formularios de encuesta los respondía la cabeza del departamento, una persona de posición superior, un coordinador de la UE/EEA, u otra persona perteneciente al departamento que tuviera el conocimiento necesario sobre el trabajo de dicha organización internacional. El formulario está compuesto de trece preguntas cuyas respuestas están presentadas en forma porcentual.Pasaremos a detallar cuáles fueron las preguntas realizadas en dicha encuesta, con el objetivo de entender la técnica utilizada y su adecuación con respecto al estudio. En la primera parte se pregunta:Por los efectos de los pilares de la Unión Europea y la EEA sobre los departamentos encuestados (mercado interno, política exterior y seguridad, y cooperación judicial y policial).Cómo afecta la adhesión a la UE y al EEA dentro de cada departamento.Con cuáles entidades habían tenido contacto cada uno de los departamentos una vez al mes durante el año anterior a la encuesta.Qué cantidad de personal había participado en determinadas entidades de la UE, por lo menos una vez al mes, durante el año anterior.Con qué frecuencia los ejecutivos del departamento habían tenido contacto con el gabinete o los líderes políticos de los ministerios en relación a los temas de la UE/EEA durante el año anterior.En la segunda parte del cuestionario se le daba al encuestado ciertas afirmaciones sobre el trabajo realizado por la organización, para conocer el porcentaje que estaba de acuerdo con dichas afirmaciones y el porcentaje que no lo estaba. Las afirmaciones estaban dirigidas a establecer:si las fechas límite establecidas hacían difícil el poder presentar casos a los líderes políticos,si el liderazgo político se había involucrado directamente en el trabajo del departamento a partir de la adhesión a la EU/EEA,si los políticos interfieren más en los trabajos relacionados a UE/EEA que en otros trabajos en el mismo departamento,si el personal tiene una mayor influencia que los políticos en los temas vinculados a la UE/EEA que en otros casos.En la tercera parte del cuestionario, se preguntaba:Si los distintos departamentos habían tenido que incrementar el número de personal con el fin de poder manejar los casos relacionados tanto a la UE, como a la EEA, durante los últimos cuatro años.Si habían tenido que tener personal calificado para manejar los casos relacionados a la Organización.El porcentaje del personal del departamento que había tenido contacto con otros departamentos, autoridades locales o representativos nacionales en casos de trabajar con la UE al menos una vez al mes durante el año anterior.Hasta qué punto el trabajo de la UE /EEA ha influenciado la coordinación de los departamentos con las autoridades en otros sectores, y también dentro de cada departamento en el último año.La cuarta parte del cuestionario investigaba la influencia de diferentes factores al momento de la ejecución del trabajo relacionado con la UE/EEA. Estos factores son:evaluaciones políticas de los gobiernos y/o ministerios,expertos y/o evaluaciones profesionales,puntos de vista de los accionistas y los grupos de interés,y los costos y beneficios a nivel de productividad.En la quinta parte, los investigadores preguntaron, si al personal de los departamentos se le presta una especie de guía al momento de asistir a un foro relacionado con la Unión Europea. En la sexta y última sección del formulario, se preguntó si los diferentes cuerpos internos han aceptado las visiones y aspiraciones de la sección sobre los temas orientados a la UE y la EEA. Como puede observarse, el formulario intenta capturar el impacto general y específico de la vinculación con la Unión Europea, la creación de recursos humanos preparados para esta interacción y la dinámica de relacionamiento entre burócratas y políticos con relación a temas relacionados con la Unión Europea.1.4. ResultadosAlgunos de los resultados que obtuvieron fueron el percibir que las administraciones centrales no están cerradas a la influencia europea, que la forma en la que se produce el cambio no sigue un modelo común a todos los países y que las bases de la administración no han sido modificadas por la integración a la Unión Europea, a la vez que las actividades y las redes si han sufrido cambios. Además, rectificaron su idea de que el acercamiento a la organización no es lo único que determina el cambio, a pesar de que la presión ejercida por la Unión Europea en algunas materias es mayor cuando se trata de sus países miembros. El cambio también depende del contexto administrativo y las características estructurales de la administración. Otro resultado de la investigación es que los cambios entre los países son sumamente diferentes; tanto entre aquellos que cuentan con la misma modalidad de integración como entre los que no lo hacen, ya que la membresía no determina cómo ni con qué profundidad se realizan los cambios.Una vez mencionado el problema de investigación, el método empleado para atenderlo y los resultados del estudio, debemos exponer las conclusiones a las que arribaron. Una de ellas es que:"the Europeization process has significant consequences on the central administrations' modus operandi in the Nordic countries. Adaptation and change are more typical than persistence and stability", página 26.La europeización tiene efectos en las administraciones ya que tienden a hacerlas cambiar. Además, confirman que el impacto de la Unión Europea en los distintos países se da de maneras diferentes en cada uno de ellos a la vez que varía también en relación al área de la que se trate, dándose cuenta de que cuanto más fuerte sea el vínculo con la organización, más profundo será el impacto. Sobre esto los autores afirman: "The impact of the UE varies from country to country. This is generally greater on member states than non-member states", página 26.A su vez, corroboran la hipótesis relacionada a la influencia de los factores internos como la tradición en la administración, ya que se percatan de que la misma restringe el cambio: "The adaptation is restricted by the institutional context of national administrative traditions", página 26.2. Crítica metodológica2.1 La estrategia metodológicaPara atender al problema de investigación planteado, que se basaba en estudiar el cambio producido en la estructura administrativa interna de los países nórdicos en relación a su integración a la Unión Europea, los investigadores contaron con una estrategia metodológica determinada, que pasaremos a explicar, comentar y criticar a continuación.En este trabajo, los investigadores utilizan la encuesta, que es un elemento propio del método cuantitativo, para poder medir los efectos de la Unión Europea en los distintos países en cuestión. Los autores parten de un conjunto de hipótesis, y luego pasan a llevar a cabo una encuesta para confirmarlas, modificarlas o refutarlas. Dicho procedimiento es lógico debido a que para el método cuantitativo se utiliza el razonamiento deductivo, que parte de una teoría y luego prosigue a la observación. Esto resulta sumamente importante, ya que en el método cuantitativo la teoría es relevante porque no puede realizarse la investigación sin ella, porque es lo que permite definir los conceptos que se emplearán y brinda los lineamientos sobre los fenómenos que es importante cuantificar, y esto debe establecerse con anterioridad a la observación. Debido a la necesidad de encontrar la relación entre el proceso de integración y el cambio en las estructuras administrativas, creemos el método empleado es adecuado. Mediante la encuesta los investigadores pueden establecer concierta precisión la existencia y características de dicha relación. Sin embargo, una crítica que puede hacerse a este proceso es que los autores no especifican cuales fueron las herramientas utilizadas para llegar a las conclusiones pertinentes referentes a las causas de las relaciones encontradas. Vale aclarar que mencionan diversos factores que las explican, como la intensidad de la relación con la organización, la importancia de las estructuras internas y la actuación previa del país en el contexto mundial, pero no desarrolla exactamente la manera en la que llegó a confirmar la hipótesis de que dichos factores tienen influencia en el cambio que se realizó en la administración interna. Como ya señalamos, el estudio permite establecer relaciones entre membresía y cambios administrativos pero las hipótesis explicativas de los cambios son hipótesis ad hoc en la cual se emplean factores que no fueron contemplados al momento de establecer las hipótesis del estudio. Las preguntas de la encuesta atienden más que nada a conocer los cambios que se dieron en la administración: si se contrató más personal para manejar las relaciones con la organización, la participación de los empleados de los ministerios en las entidades de la UE y la frecuencia de su contacto con representantes de la misma, entre otras. Mediante la encuesta, entonces, concluyen que sí ha habido cambios, pero no podemos decir que es con ella que intentan atender a las razones de los mismos, por lo que esta cuestión constituye una debilidad del estudio.Por otro lado, cuando se trata de la utilización del diseño cuasi-experimental para llevar a cabo el estudio, consideramos que esta estrategia es sumamente adecuada ya que se aprovechan del hecho de que existen dos grupos establecidos por sí solos. Entre los países nórdicos hay dos que son miembros y otros dos que no lo son. De esta manera, los investigadores pudieron observar los cambios que se dan en la administración de cada uno de los países, ligando fuertemente la profundidad de éstos a los factores que tienen en común los países de un grupo y de diferente con el otro. En el propio artículo los autores dicen haberse dado cuenta de que la existencia de dos países miembros y dos no miembros les presenta una oportunidad única de atenerse a un diseño cuasi-experimental, ya que les permitiría ver variaciones en muchas variables independientes a la vez. Dichas variables independientes, que son los factores que tienen en común los integrantes dentro de los grupos, permiten que los autores vean los patrones respuesta al cambio de los países, que varían considerablemente dependiendo del grupo. Por último, el método comparativo también está presente en esta investigación, estando fuertemente ligado al diseño cuasi-experimental por el que existen dos grupos a los que se le ha aplicado tratamientos distintos, aunque estos ya estén determinados previamente y no los decidan los investigadores. De esta manera, los autores utilizan estos dos grupos para efectuar una comparación mediante el método de la diferencia (Przeworski, Teune, 1972) ya que son países que tienen características comunes entre sí, pero se hallan resultados distintos que son los que se quiere explicar, por lo que deben buscar uno o más factores que hacen la diferencia. Su hipótesis es que la misma yace en la integración a la Unión Europea. Por lo tanto, la elección del método comparativo es sumamente apropiada para este tema, ya que, combinándola con el diseño cuasi-experimental, contribuyen a agregar factores relevantes a la hora de explicar la diferencia en los cambios.2.2 Las técnicas En lo referente a si esta técnica es apropiada o no para el estudio, podemos decir que está destinada a afirmar o desestimar la hipótesis sobre el cambio producido en los países debido a la europeización, pero no provee una conclusión fundada sobre la relevancia de los factores que utilizan para justificar las diferencias ya que deja afuera algunos de ellos, como las tradiciones de la administración y la cooperación previa de los países en la comunidad internacional. Es decir, el factor "tradición administrativa" aparece como una explicación ad hoc pero no está contemplado en el diseño mismo del estudio. Por otro lado, podemos decir que esta técnica aplicada es acorde al problema de investigación en el sentido que al ser sistemática y estandarizada, hace que sea más simple la reproducción de los datos; sin embargo, no significa que todo el proceso de investigación sea reproducible (como ya se señaló previamente).2.3 La muestraLa población de la investigación está basada en las administraciones de los cuatro países nórdicos estudiados. Mientras tanto, el universo, es la cantidad de departamentos administrativos con los que cuenta cada uno de ellos. Dentro de los cuales se analizaron 331 en Noruega, 90 en Islandia, 381 en Suecia, y 285 en Finlandia. El 25% de los departamentos son unidades ministeriales, mientras que el restante 75% son unidades directorales. Creemos que la muestra fue acertada en el sentido de que se intentó llevar a cabo lo dispuesto desde un principio, estudiar cómo se ven afectados los distintos departamentos, por la adhesión a la Unión Europea. Igualmente, debemos establecer, que lo que no es correcto, es no mencionar como se eligieron los departamentos a encuestar.3. ConclusiónEl propósito del paper era estudiar la transformación en la administración de los países nórdicos, siendo su problema de investigación, justamente, el efecto que tiene la europeización en dicho cambio. Como pudimos ver por medio de las conclusiones a las que arribaron los autores, sería acertado afirmar que, efectivamente, el acercamiento de estos países a la Unión Europea – ya sea convirtiéndose en miembros o adhiriéndose al EEA – , fue decisivo a la hora de reformar las administraciones internas, porque las mismas se vieron obligadas a hacer frente a los nuevos retos que se le presentaban por vincularse con la Organización. Sin embargo, también es posible asegurar que ésta no es la única variable que influyó, ya que también vimos que las tradiciones de cada administración limitaban el cambio y de alguna manera lo condicionaban. La variable "tradición administrativa" aparece como un factor explicativo a posteriori sin estar debidamente incluido en el razonamiento del diseño de investigación.(1) Disponible en: http://www.ub.uib.no/elpub/rokkan/N/N17-02.pdf(2) El European Economic Agreement (EEA) está vinculado al primer pilar de la Unión Europea sobre cooperación, y facilita un mercado interno entre los firmantes del acuerdo y los miembros de la Organización, permitiendo el libre movimiento de capital, personas y servicios.(3) Según establecen los autores en su estudio:"This paper addresses a general research question (…) namely the impact of «Europe» on domestic administrative structures and behavior. (…).The main questions are to what extent can we observe domestic administrative change and new administrative behavior and practices under the impact of the EU, and how can we explain the observed adaptation pattern" página 7.(4) "In the quasi-experiment comparisons are possible because of naturally occurring treatment groups. The naturally occurring treatment groups are fairly clear-cut, though not set up for research purposes. Therefore the experimental treatment is not controlled by the researcher, but the researcher has some control over when to measure outcome variables in relation to exposure to the independent variable." (Punch, 2005, 71). *Estudiantes de la Licenciatura en Estudios InternacionalesDepto de Estudios InternacionalesFACS – Universidad ORT UruguayREFERENCIAS BIBLIOGRÁFICASBLALOCK, Hubert M. 1989. Introducción a la investigación social. Buenos Aires, Amorrortu.GONZALEZ, Pedro. 2005. Medir en las ciencias sociales. En: García Ferrando, Manuel et. al. El análisis de la realidad social. 3era edición. Madrid: Alianza. KING, G.; KEOHANE, R.; VERBA, S. 1994. Designing social inquiry. New Jersey: Princeton University Press. LAGREID, Peter; SMARI STEINTHORSON, Runolfur; THORHALLSSON, Baldur.Europeanization of Public Administration: Effects of the EU on the Central administration in the Nordic States. 2002. Bergen Univeristy Research Foundation. PRZEWORSKI, Adam; TEUNE, Henry. 1972. The logic of comparative social inquiry. New York: Wiley & Sons.PUNCH, Keith. 2005. Introduction to social research. Quantitative and qualitative approaches. London, Sage. SARTORI, G.; MORLINO, L. (compiladores) 1994. La comparación en las ciencias sociales. Madrid: Alianza.

THE USE OF NATURALLY OCCURRING MOOD- altering substances is deeply rooted in the traditions and cultures of many communities worldwide. As documented in other societies and historical records,1,2 various compounds have been employed for altering consciousness and for their curative effects.3 Two substances traditionally used in the Middle East include hashish and khat.4 Hashish, as cannabis, has been known in the region since ancient times.5 Khat, also known as chat, derived from the leaves and young shoots of the khat plant (Catha edulis), is used for its stimulant effect.6 Technological advances that enable high purification of drugs and transporting them fast, and increasing urbanisation, have caused these mood altering substances to be taken out of their traditional role in societies and have come to pose new, complex and challenging threats.7 These threats have been manifested in two important ways: () wider use of drugs, and (2) a shift from natural drugs to the more potent purer forms. Globally, illegal money derived from illicit drug transactions amounts to 400 billion dollars annually, and is second only to the arms trade.8,9 The countries of the Arabian Gulf Co-operation Council (GCC) offers an interesting study area because their diverse cultures have experienced rapid acculturation, a phenomenon often equated with a rise in psychosocial stress.10 Psychosocial stress has often been associated with vulnerability to self poisoning11 and substance abuse.12 Although there are no adequate statistical studies to indicate the incidence of substance dependency in the GCC, it is clear that substance abuse is not a minor problem considering the number of reported drug seizures by the authorities.13 In real terms, the drugs seized by law enforcement authorities constitute only 5–0 percent of the actual quantity.14 Comprehensive data on the pattern of substance dependency is hampered by the criminal and moral stigma associated with substance dependency. Whatever the real number of people afflicted with addiction, substance dependency is a severe problem when considered in terms of personal distress, family disruption and interference with productivity and economic growth. Efforts have been undertaken in GCC countries to reduce the demand for drugs and to prevent drug abuse before it occurs. These efforts are coordinated through the Demand Reduction Committee, created in 200 with members from all countries of the GCC. The committee provides leadership in coordinating and facilitating strategies in this area including law enforcement, rehabilitation and leading and assisting the community in the task of education and prevention of substance abuse. Some studies have suggested that substance dependency occurs in adolescents in all strata of the society.14–16 However, these studies are limited to self-report questionnaires based on secondary school students. Although peer pressure is likely to play a significant part in the initiation of substance abuse,16 the subsequent heavy abuse is often associated with various psychosocial factors. It has been suggested that of all the social factors that predispose individuals to substance abuse, boredom is the most significant.14,17 The recent affluence and modernisation of the GCC societies have led many people to have a lot of spare time, as household chores are carried out by expatriate servants.14 The detrimental effects of such a lifestyle, including substance dependency, have been speculated in the literature.13,18–21 In a study cited by Al-Harthi14 of personality profiles and descriptive analyses of typical substance users enrolled in a treatment centre in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia, the most frequently stated reason for indulging in drugs was to escape boredom. This view, though substantiated by other studies in the region,22,23 has not taken into account the relationship of individual temperament to substance abuse. Recent studies have suggested that phenotypical "risk takers" or "sensation seekers" are often not inhibited from yielding to various illicit practices including substance abuse.24 Future studies in the region should examine the association between personality types, risk taking behaviour and boredom. The premise that the rise in substance dependency might be precipitated by erosion of traditional family networks and skewed social expectations might be relevant to GCC countries. Al-Hashmi18 has suggested that modernisation has resulted in the Omani family becoming nuclear at the cost of the traditional extended family. Concurrently, domestic servants brought from overseas, often illiterate in the dominant language, are providing much of the socialisation to children. Reinforced by frequent international travelling, satellite televisions and the Internet, acculturation appears to have occurred too quickly in GCC societies. Smith has remarked that these changes have brought these communities development that took a thousand years in Europe in less than 20 years.25 Studies from other parts of the world that have experienced similar rapid pace of modernisation have shown disintegration of native culture and identity as well as dissolution of the social network, to which individuals had previously turned for help when in trouble.26 In addition, the spread of education have resulted in higher levels of expectations. In the new social order, individuals in the region tend to regard employment opportunities, guaranteed higher levels of income, and especially, higher social standing, as acquired rights. Frustration of the desire to climb the social ladder leads to social insecurity.14 The present situation of society in transition fits with the classical sociological observations of Ibn Khaldun and Emile Durkheim: rapid transformation leads to breakdown of traditional social cohesion.14As a result, the sense of belonging becomes a luxury, leading to social drift, alienation, and the proliferation of social misfits. The society itself may become anomic. The relationship between acculturation, anomie and drug taking has received empirical support.27 The present tendency is to view substance abuse in its psychosocial context rather than on moral terms. While more studies that are comprehensive are needed to examine the pattern of use and misuse of drugs in the GCC countries, there are various reasons to assume that substance dependency is likely to continue to pose a problem in the region. First, the geography helps both trafficking and consumption. GCC countries are located close to the "Golden Triangle" or "Drug Belt", a part of Asia where underdevelopment and political instability have fuelled drug driven economies. Second, being on a major route for international airlines and sea routes by virtue of being in the middle of the world, GCC countries are at constant risk of being used as trans-shipment points for drug trafficking. The Arabian Peninsula has a vast coastline with its horizon overlooking major sea routes to different continents. Even if vigilance to guard its borders is heightened, such a long coastline would remain porous. Moreover, effective surveillance would require more allocation of resources and work force, drawing vital resources away from establishing essential remedial and rehabilitation services for the victims of substance abuse. Thirdly, the increasing number of visitors and the presence of foreign labour in the GCC also help make the "Gulf route" a crossroad for trans-world drug supplies. Some individuals may fall prey to the fallouts from these passing illegal shipments even though they may be destined elsewhere. It is also possible that an increase in consumption of illicit substances among the local population has in itself escalated the demand. In support of the latter view are the rising statistics on the mortality related to drug abuse and the number of clients seeking treatment in rehabilitation centres in the GCC states.15,28 Dispensing accurate information on issues related to substance abuse is a key component to fighting drug abuse. Studies are needed to illuminate the effect of substance dependency in the GGC countries as the mass media often tends to downplay the risks of drug use, or sometimes even glamorises it. Evidence is emerging on the personal consequences of substance dependency. Okasha, in the context of Egypt, has demonstrated that substance dependency is likely to lead to underachievement at school or work and exacerbate family stress, financial burdens and exposure to criminal activity.29 However, literature does not discern whether these social problems are the cause or the effect of the substance dependency. Substance dependency is often associated with psychiatric morbidity30 but it is not clear whether this is cause or effect. Karam et al in their report from Lebanon suggest a strong relationship between addiction to substances of abuse and psychiatric diagnoses.31 These authors further suggest that certain personality types often abuse specific substances. However, such a simplistic view appears to be merely reiterating the chicken-or-the-egg argument. Some authors have suggested that substance dependency is a form of self-medication, which implies that individuals with substance dependency have high levels of psychosocial distress and use illicit drugs in an attempt to alleviate their distress. This is relevant to the suggestion that some psychiatric symptoms may mimic withdrawal effects of chronic substance dependency and withdrawal symptomatology co-varies with cognitive and psychological functioning.32 In addition to psychiatric illness, substance dependency has been seen to increase the risk of adverse drug reactions. A well-known complication of substance dependency is the risk of transmission of human immunodeficiency virus and other infections.33 VISIBLE PATTERNS IN THE GCC The discovery of oil in the GCC has brought rapid modernisation as well as unprecedented material progress and economic security.34 Although GCC nationals, like other cultural groups in developing countries, are thought to have beliefs that protect them against developing substance dependency, such beliefs appear to be eroding with the rising tide of acculturation and economic restructuring. Demographic factors such as the preponderance of adolescents in the population will continue to elude those advocating demand reduction policies even if harsher penalties are decreed for traffickers and users. Approximately 60% of the population in the region are less than 20 years old.35 As reported elsewhere, 36 adolescents are prone to risk taking behaviour, a temperament that has been associated with developmental milestones including the underdevelopment of the orbital-frontal cortex.34 In GCC countries, the rate of juvenile delinquency has, in a span of 0 years, increased approximately by 400%. Unless the needs of such a large and important segment of society as its young people are addressed, this may present a demographic time-bomb with unpredictable social consequences. With a fast growing population, competitions for social and occupational roles are likely to be more intense, leaving many failed individuals behind. With such a demographic trend, it is likely that many individuals carry a greater risk of developing various adjustment difficulties including substance dependency.37 Data emanating from other developing countries suggest that drug peddlers tend to target the poor and the unemployed. Whereas substance dependency in other parts of the world is often associated with economic and social breakdown,38 no study has examined whether substance dependency in the GCC countries follows the same pattern.39 Preliminary observations in Oman suggest that there is relationship between unemployment and propensity for substance abuse.14 Interestingly, the study suggests that addiction to illicit drugs is likely to interfere with employment, often rendering some individuals to lose their jobs. In the midst of such conflicting views, further studies are needed to ascertain the conditions that trigger drug dependency in the community.40 While more information is needed in order to make an informed policy on substance dependency, there is some evidence pointing to which substances are widely abused in GCC countries. First, clinical reports suggest that solvent misuse is extensive although no formal studies have been conducted. Hafeiz41 has suggested that abuse of solvents often occurs in order to overcome the boredom of modern living. There is also increasing evidence to suggest that some of these agents cause mental disorders42 as well as neurological complications.43 The chemicals in question include glues, liquid shoe polish, deodoriser, petrol, cologne and insecticides.44,45 A special pattern of substance dependency associated with social deviancy and delinquency also involves a home-made mixture of dates and ointments as well as inhalation of intoxicating fumes derived from burning the wings of cockroaches and ants with volatile substances. Habitual inhaling of these substances is often associated with a failure to thrive.42 Secondly, inhaling smoke derived from nicotine based substances is now common in many GCC countries.46,47 Tobacco is often chewed, snuffed or smoked either in cigarettes or in sheesha. The latter (also known as hookah) is a smoking device, widely used in some communities of the Arabian Peninsula, to smoke jurak, a cooked tobacco-fruit mixture, and burnt by an electrical device or by charcoal. The produced smoke passes through the water at the base of the sheesha and then a long-tube before it is inhaled. Though most smokers consider sheesha less harmful to health than cigarette smoking,48 this has not been substantiated in regional studies.48,49 Experimental and clinical studies have found that nicotine, an active ingredient of both sheesha and cigarettes, not only triggers cardiovascular diseases, but also predisposes frequent users to various neuropsychiatric disorders.50 The question remains whether smoking triggers mental illness or people with mental illness are more likely to smoke.51 Pharmacological studies have unequivocally shown that nicotine is as addictive as other well-known psychoactive drugs such as cocaine and amphetamines.52 However, GCC countries have given a low priority to this a public health issue. Demand for nicotine has been falling in industrialised nations, 53 but a similar picture is not emerging from middle and low income countries. Cigarette companies are now targeting the developing world.53 Moreover, cigarette companies are manufacturing products of differing quality for sale in different markets. It has been shown that cigarettes of the same brand sold in developing countries have higher tar content than in the country of origin.54 Some studies have suggested that certain cigarettes are made from more potent, hence, more addictive, nicotine.53,55 As there is no known effective program to educate people about the dangers of smoking, prevention and smoking cessation appear to an unattainable goals. To compound the problem, some proponents of the "gateway phenomenon" suggest that smoking is a springboard to hard drugs such as cocaine and heroin, 56 though there is also evidence to contradict this view.57 The social problems precipitated by alcoholism have not yet been reported in the GCC countries though some reports suggest that drinking problems are proliferating.13,44,58 The World Health Organisation59 estimates that more then 5 million people are disabled because of alcohol use, making it the fourth leading cause of worldwide disability. Theobald has suggested that approximately 0% of alcohol consumers will at some time experience serious health problems related to their drinking habit.60 As many individuals are now facing the daily challenges of modern living and the pressures of modern life, alcohol abuse is thought to be one of the elusive antidotes to modern insecurity.17 Some recent findings suggest that individuals who have a high subjective level of insecurity in their lives are likely to abuse alcohol to ward of their psychosocial stress. Interestingly, people with such attributes have been seen to have refractory types of alcoholism.61 Alcohol syndromes such as delirium tremens and Korsakoff's psychosis are known to occur among people who consume it regularly.50 Persons at risk of drinking problems cannot be reliably identified in the population; therefore the pattern of drinking and its psychosocial correlates are indicated for the GCC countries. The bulk of the studies21,45,58 have focused solely on exploring the validity of research instruments on cross-cultural application of drinking attitude and behaviour. Little is known on the effect of alcohol repackaged as "cologne" available in some GCC countries.62,63 Colognes or ethyl alcohol-containing perfume and after-shave are sometimes ingested as an alcohol substitute.64 Relevant to this, it would be important to determine whether the availability of alcohol and other soft drugs deters people from going into narcotics that are more dangerous. One suggestion is that in those societies of GCC where there is a relaxed attitude towards alcohol, there are fewer propensities towards heroin and other dangerous drugs.14 It also not clear how such information would be helpful in planning intervention programs in GCC countries, as the experiences from other societies suggest a complex relationship between alcohol and substance abuse. The "gateway theory" would suggest that using alcohol leads people to use harder drugs like cocaine and heroin.65 There is also scant information on the pattern and psychosocial correlates of over-the-counter medications in the GCC countries. Though generally viewed as harmless, many of them have the potential for abuse, particular those that are considered to be amphetamine-like stimulants.66 These includes nasal decongestants, bronchodilators, appetite suppressants and energy pills and drinks. While there is no evidence to suggest that cocaine and hallucinogens are widely consumed in the GCC countries, 13 the story of opiate use is somewhat different. Historical documents suggest that opium was considered as a medicinal substance in the Middle East. It was recommended by various towering Arab figures such as Ibn Sina.1 More recently, however, its semi-synthetic counterpart, heroin, far removed from its cultural context, is becoming the drug of choice for addicts in the GCC countries. Being close to heroin producing regions of the world, GCC appears to be the trafficker's place of choice. Being capable of causing compulsive dependency within a short time, heroin has a devastating effect on the user and society in general. To those who are addicted to heroin, it appears the habit leaves them little time for meaningful life. To compound the problem, as 90% of GCC heroin addicts use it intravenously, sharing of contaminated needles causes infections of human immune deficiency virus and a high incidence of other infections.33 Similarly, the number of cases of heroin addiction is often directly related to the number of crimes.27 Despite stringent regulations to reduce the supply and demand, the habit proliferates. Judging from the quantities of drugs seized by the authorities, the last decade has witnessed a dramatic increase in the number of cases of heroin addiction, the number of addicts seeking rehabilitation, and death due to heroin overdose.PROSPECTS FOR THE FUTURE Rehabilitation for addiction is often in the hands of psychiatric or penitentiary services though some specialised centres have emerged in some GCC countries.16 Culturally sensitive interventions seem to be often relegated to fringe importance. Medical interventions are likely to grow considering the many claims about new pharmacological tools that take advantage of the chemical properties of alcohol and other drugs. However, drug treatment for substance dependency should not hold up the search for psychosocial predisposing factors, which, in turn, could be a springboard for educational strategies to reduce demand. Indeed, blind adherence to pharmacological intervention not only seems similar to drug peddling, but also may be counterproductive in the long term. A biomedical explanatory model of substance dependency may lead to stigma, and lessen the individual and societal accountability in tackling compulsive dependency. Stressing personal responsibility, on the other hand, motivates one to change, as well as help one understand the challenges ahead and evolve coping mechanisms.67 As distress and stress are experienced in a socio-cultural context, rehabilitation services should avoid committing what Kleinman has called a "category fallacy", where a view of human nature developed for one cultural group is uncritically applied to members of another group for whom its validity has not been established.68 According to Kleinman, this results in a "distortion of pathology" rather than a critical understanding of the ways in which the members of a different cultural group perceive, experience and communicates beliefs and distress. One of the essential grounds for formulating enlightened policies toward drug dependency is to consider the society's outlook towards mood altering substances. Despite the documented frequency of substance abuse in GCC countries, a review of the literature reveals no objective studies on knowledge, attitude and perception. Opinion towards substance dependency among citizens of GCC countries is likely to have a wide-ranging influence, affecting issues as diverse as personal consequences of substance dependency, prevention, care and management of people with substance abuse. Historical and cross-cultural studies have suggested that individuals with substance dependence are likely to encounter active discrimination and harassment which, in turn, exacerbates their psychosocial predicament and perpetuates their relapse into drug taking.37 Similarly, it has been suggested that social attitudes can be more devastating than the addiction itself, and the addict's family suffers as well.69 Although many victims of substance dependency could benefit from treatment, attitudes of society towards them is likely to hamper their seeking rehabilitation. As a result, many are likely to stay underground until addiction has reached an advanced stage of irreversible pathology. This not only increases pessimism of the victims and those around them but also shatters the prospect of recovery. Therefore, more research in GCC countries should be conducted in order to shed light on socio-cultural factors that precipitate individuals to succumb to substance abuse. This would open the door for contemplating strategies to achieve a reasonable level of prevention as well as to prioritise which aspects of services are pertinent to the region. Grinspoon and Bakalar have suggested that of all the mistakes repeated, the most serious is trying to free society of drugs via legislation and regulation.70 Indeed, many studies1 suggest that no punitive measure deters availability and abuse of drugs.14 It appears that financial gain is one of the strongest determining factors. Globally, though consensus from the experts in the field suggests that substance dependency is a disease, public opinion often considers it a form of moral degeneracy that can destroy social values. As a result, victims of substance dependency are sent to the prison. Many countries have pursued the idea of creating a national consensus towards zero tolerance for substance abuse and death penalty for drug traffickers. The policies fluctuate between curbing trafficking, reducing demand and decriminalisation of certain classes of drugs.71 Some countries have considered decriminalizing soft drugs and the debate continues on the rationale of dispensing heroin to heroin-addicts.72 Although more time is needed to assess the long-term outcome of these new programs, history has shown that none of the previous campaigns to curb the spread of substance misuse has worked. Instead, the situation appears to be summed up in Bob Marley's lyric, "So you think you have found the solution; But it's just another illusion". CONCLUSION The problem of drug abuse in the GCC is a multi-dimensional one without easy solutions. This paper has touched upon several of these issues. Even though for zero tolerance to substance dependency is advocated, no program has been found to be universally successful in reducing drug dependence. Historically, many societies have tried both criminalisation and decriminalisation but to no avail. Despite all the technologies to monitor and legal authority to bring the drug traffickers to justice,including the threat of death penalty, dealing with substances that cause addiction is becoming a global challenge of ever increasing magnitude. More discouraging, the problem has even affected societies where one would expect cultural factors to protect them from the attraction of drugs. The purpose of this paper, thus, is to "point a finger to the moon", the moon symbolising the complexity of substance dependency. One should not confuse the moon with the finger that points to it.

GIES PRIZE ESSAY NUMBER. YOL. XII NO. 5 OCTOBER, 1903 The ' Gettysburg CQercury GETTYSBURG COLLEGE i GETTYSBURG, PA. BARBfMINN ft LITTLE, LTD., aKTTYBBUftO O'SUR® e,; w M PATRONIZE OUR ADVERTISERS. Publishers ot THE GETTYSBURG NEWS 142 Carlisle St., Gettysburg, Pa. BARBEHENH«LITTLE, LTD. AMOS ECKERT Latest Styles in HATS, SHOES AND GENT'S FURNISHING .Our specialty. WALK-OVER SHOE AMOS ECKERT Prices always right The Lutheran puMigfjing jlouge. No. 1424 Arch Street PHILADELPHIA, PA. Acknowledged Headquarters for anything and everything in the way of Books for Churches, Col-leges, Families and Schools, and literature for Sunday Schools. PLEASE REMEMBER That by sending your orders to us you help build up and devel-op one of the church institutions with pecuniary advantage to yourself. Address H. S. BONER, Supt. WE RECOMMEND THESE FIRMS. The Pleased Customer is not a stranger in our estab-lishment— lie's right at home, you'll see him when you call. We have the materials to please fastidious men. J. D. LIPPY, Merehant Tailor, 29 Chambersburg Street, GETTYSBURG, PA. CITY HOTEL, Main Street, - Gettysburg, Pa. Free 'Bus to an from all trains. Thirty seconds' walk from either depot. Dinner with drive over field with four or more, $1.35. Rates, $1.50 to $2.00 per Day. Livery connected. Rubber-tire buggies a specialty. John E. Hughes, Prop. T1PT0H 1 Now in 1 THE .PHOTOGRAPHER. new Studio 20 and 22 Chambersburg Street, Gettysburg, Pa. One of the finest modern lights in the country. Ml l BARBEHEHH, THE EACLE HOTEL Corner Main aud Washington Sts. Drag Stot*e, 36 Baltimore St. HOT AND COLD SODA AND CAMERA SUPPLIES ■ PATRONIZE OUR ADVERTIZERS. FURNITURE Mattresses, Bed Springs, Iron Beds, Picture Frames, Repair Work done promptly. Under-taking a specialty. * Telephone No. 97. ZE3I. IB. ZE3erLd-er ■73 Baltimore St., : : : : : : Gettysburg, Pa. THE STEWART & STEEN CO. College Engravers and, (Printers 1024 Arch. St., Philadelphia, Pa. MAKERS AND PUBLISHERS OF Commencement, Class Day Invitations and Programs, Class Pins and Buttons in Gold and Other Metals, Wedding Invitations and Announcements, At Home Cards, Reception Cards and Visiting Cards, Visiting Cards—Plate and 50 cards, 75 cents. Special Discount to Students. N. A. YEANY, Gettysburg College Representative. • 4. §. $palding & §ros., * * OFFICIAL * * FOOT BALL SUPPLIES Are Made in Accordance With Official Stiles. Spalding's handsomely illustrated cata-logue of Fall and Winter Sports contain-ing all the new things in foot ball will be sent free to any address. Spalding's Official Foot Ball Guide, containing the new rules. Per copy, IO cents. How to Play Foot Ball. By Walter Camp. New edition. Per copy, 10 cents. A. G. Spalding &: Bros. New York. ('hicago Philadelphia San Francisco Uoston Baltimore Buffalo Kansas City St. Louis London, Minneapolis England. Denver Montreal,Can PATRONIZE OUR ADVERTIZERS. AxTe always Ha^e the sea-sons novelties, besides a complete line of staples at prices to tearxipt you. SPECIAL CARE TAKEN TO MAKE WORK STYLISH AND EXACTLY TO YOUR ORDER. (Hill fll. Seligman, Taiio*. 7 ChambcPsbafg St., Gettysburg, Pa. R. A. WONDERS Corner Cigar Parlors. A full line of Cigars, Tobacco, Pipes, etc. Scott's Corner, opp. Eagle Hotel GETTYSBURG, PA. Pool Parlors in Connection. D. J. Swartz Country Produce in Groceries Cigars and Tobacco GETTYSBURG. Established 1867 by Allen Walton. Allen K. Walton, Pre9. and Treas. Root. J. Walton, Superintendent. Hummelstown FO wi) Stone jjompanjj, QTT.A.:R,:e,-E-2!v£:E:LT and Manufacturers of BUILDING STONE, SAWED FLAGGING, and TILE, WALTOPILLE DAUPHIN COUNTY, PENNA. Contractors for all kinds of cut stone work. Telegraph and Express Address, BROWNSTONE, PA. Parties visiting Quarries will leave cars at Brownstone Station, on the P. & R. R.R. THE GETTYSBURG JIERGIIRY The Literary Journal of Gettysburg College Voi,. XII. GETTYSBURG, PA., OCTOBER, 1903 No. 5 CONTENTS SUNRISE . . • 144 LYMAN A. GUSS, '04. ARE THE OXFORD SCHOLARSHIPS OF CECIL RHODES LIKELY TO BENEFIT AMERICA? . . . ,. 148 ABDEI, R. WENTZ, '04. * WHY SHOULD THE AMERICAN COLLEGE GRADUATE ENTER THE TEACHING PROFESSION ? . . . 153 WIWAM W. BARKXEY, '04. HOW SHALL WE PREVENT PENNSYLVANIA COAL STRIKES? 157 FRANK LAYMAN, '04. SHALL WE REPEAL THE FIFTEENTH AMENDMENT ? . 163 C. EDWIN BUTI,ER, '05. VITAL FORCE IN LITERATURE . . . . 166 EDITORIALS 169 EXCHANGES 172 144 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. SUNRISE. (First Gies Prize Essay.) LYMAN A. GUSS, '04. IT is dark. The stars are shining. Yonder is the dipper and above its bowl is the ever-constant north star. The con-stellations are in their various places. There towards the east is Venus now reigning as star of the morning. The other planets discernible move slowly on in their alloted places in the silent majesty of their governing law. Even now they are seemingly somewhat darkened by the dazzling brilliancy of their sister planet. The whole firmament is resplendent with the grandeur of ten thousand suns studded in the canopy of heaven. The treasures of creation seem to have been sown broadcast in the limitless area of the sky. The beauty of the scene is consummate ; its apprehension is sublime ; its begin-ning and end is God. How irregular and yet how perfect the arrangement! How unreal and yet how systematic the con-trolling force ! How infinite the wisdom of the creator in the perfect harmony of the vast plan of the universe ! " One sun by day, by night ten thousand shine, And light us deep into the Deity ; How boundless in magnificence and might! O what a confluence of the real fires, From urns unnumbered down the steep of heaven, Streams to a point, and centres in my sight!" Even as.we surmise the very air seems pregnant with the over- > flowing beauty of the skies. Everything is silent. A touch of the supernatural seems to have fallen over the land. In the ether above is the silent twinkle, twinkle of the star; in the valley beneath is the sleeping village. The rolling undulations of the land and its rising hills, as dimly seen in the starlight, portend the shadowy forms of reclining giants. The whole valley lies before us as a visionary dreamland. The dormant powers and energies of man have not yet been awakened. It is a time when all things seems to conspire in the formation of a singular and strange existence. Everything seems saturated THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. 145 with this all pervading influence, even the night itself unex-cepted, for "it is darkest before dawn." But while the grandeur of a perfect night is upon us it fades. The stars are going to sleep. Behold that streak of gray in the east! Surely it betokens not some disastrous fire ! It in-creases slowly. Now its import turns to significance. It is the herald of the king of day signalizing his advent. Aurora has hastened in her ever faithful office as precursor of her brother, Phoebus, who with his fiery steads and brazen chariot follows closely in her wake, and she now foretells his coming by her own inspiring presence. Slowly the streak of gray lengthens, widens, aye, it changes. The "flaky darkness" breaks within the east. The black of night is melting. Enveloped in its shroud the frowning night yields slowly to the smiling day. " Look, the gentle day, Before the wheels of Phoebus round about Dapples the drowsy east with spots of gray." The streaks of gray have now become a sheet of pale yellow. The change and increase is slow, but constant and sure. Every moment signifies an addition to the growing brilliancy. Again the light has strengthened so as to contrast the whiteness of the horizon with the azure blue of the zenith. While the con-trast is marked, the blending is harmonious and unbroken. Straggling clouds in the western sky further enhance the glory of the occasion. The dark blue of their irregular arrangment suggests a variety to the natural splendor, ever modifying as each moment flits by. The silent music of the universe is sounding fourth its note on the interminable waves of the ether, and to the beat of each minute dawn progresses. But now behold the base line of earth and sky and the pre-tentious masses piled thereon in one unbroken stretch. The illusion is complete. Imagination is confused, but acts. Has some hostile foe invaded the land under the cover of darkness and is that long extent of apparent earthwork a mountain or the embattlement of an enemy ? Has nature sought to alter the form of the earth as wrought by the ages ? The deception is apparent. Reason conquers and prevails. The banks of clouds present their rugged outlines sharply defined against 146 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. the growing light of the eastern sky. The dim dividing line is quite obscure. " Rosy fingered Dawn " has already painted her delicate hue on the portals of the east, and the whole canopy of the sky seems tinted with the reflection. The vast field of red is mottled here and there with small patches of cloud which float silently in their gradual dissolution. The lower mass of accumulated clouds begin to fade and are checkered by the piercing shafts of morning light. The golden glow is already on this mass of bold relief. The diffusing light of the sun even ■ presages his coming by now slowly dissolving these barriers, which as agents of night, seem to obstruct his appearance. But now the village. Slowly it is awakening from the repose of night. White smoke from numerous chimneys is already curling into the still atmosphere above. Yonder to the right arises a steady column of blacker hue suggestive of the princi-pal industry. The attendant noises of the morning declare that activity has begun. To the left and farther up the valley the shrill shriek of a locomotive rends the peaceful air of morn-ing. The consoling note of the bird on the near-by tree sounds pure and clear as if in echoing response. Here and there goes the habitant to his toil, indicative of that irrevocable decree upon man, "Thou shalt work." The sharp spires of the two churches stand as silhouettes against the bright glow in the east. Every dwelling seems to demand a place in the picture below. The whole town lies huddled at the base of the eminence in the rear. Over the rolling landscape as it were, may be seen the farmer's house serving as a pleasing relief to the otherwise somewhat monoto-nous scene. Gradually creeping by the town and widening away through the land is the solitary river like unto a silver cord in the distance, until it is finally obscured in the recesses of the distant ridges. It seems to reflect the strengthening light of morning and even so appears as a molten stream of silver with its white metallic lustre. Directly below its clear ripple seems to designate the fact of its Alteration from every impurity by the darkness of night. All is idealistic in the spec-tacle before us. Nature seems united in one supreme effort to please in her elevating influence. THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. 147 Sunrise is an ever-changing sight. At no two minutes is the scene the same. Already with what seems accelerated speed the day-star has almost completed his preliminary course and his appearance is at hand. The sky before us is one sheet of burning gold. Everything is radiant with the effulgent light. The fragmentary clouds now skirting the horizon gleam as they absorb the light and beauty of the morning. Long shafts of light, fan-like, present the ultimate variation and the orb of day is manifest. One long ray of shimmering light shot across the intervening country is the signal gun of his appearance, They increase, multiply and remultiply and the whole earth is drowned in the flood of vital light. Night has abdicated and day has mounted the throne. "Night candles are burnt out" and sunrise is complete. " 'Tis mom. Behold the Kingly Day now leaps The eastern wall of earth with sword in hand, Clad in a flowing robe of mellow light, Like to a king that has regained his throne, He warms his drooping subjects into joy, That rise rejoiced to do him fealty, And rules with pomp the universal world." I48 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. ARE THE OXFORD SCHOLARSHIPS OF CECIL RHODES LIKELY TO BENEFIT AMERICA? {Second Cies Prise Essay.) ABDEI. R. WENTZ, '04. AFTER the death of Cecil Rhodes, the South African multi-millionaire and the Empire Builder, which occur-' red on March 26th last, it was announced to the world that his will provided for a $ro,ooo,ooo bequest to Oxford University, England. And this is nothing very remarkable. It is but natural that a man who in his life had such a wide outlook upon the world's affairs should donate a portion at least of his immense fortune to the furtherance of education. And that this donation should be made to Oxford University is exactly what might be expected in view of the fact that the donor was graduated at that institution. But the point of special interest and the one which most concerns us as Americans is the nature of the conditions which the bequeather attaches to his bequest. The famous will which has aroused so much comment, both favorable and unfavorable, provides that the $10,000,000 shall be applied to scholarships apportioned as follows: two to each of the self-governing colonies of the British Empire, five to Germany, and two to each state or territory of United States. The scholarships are each to amount to $1500 per year for a term of three years. The method of choosing the students is provided for in the will and it is quite a novel one. In the examination of the competitors, reference must be had to the following four points :(i) his literary and scholastic ability; (2) his love of outdoor sports ; (3) his manliness ; (4) his moral character and his qualification for leadership. Marks for the several qualifications are to be awarded in the proportion of four-tenths for the first, one-tenth for the second, three-tenths for the third, and two-tenths for the fourth. Mr. Rhodes' pur-pose in making such a donation was to bring about Anglo- Saxon amity by having the leading men in the three countries educated together at the same institution and thus to secure the "peace of the world." THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. 149 It is not our purpose in this paper to examine whether the "peace of the world" will likely be secured by these scholar-ships, nor yet whether Cecil Rhodes' motive in establishing them was a good one. The question that we do propose to attempt to answer is whether America is likely to be benefitted by the scholarships or not. Of course, the future alone will positively and absolutely reveal the answer to this question, but by considering the present-day conditions and the most probable effects we can with at least some degree of certitude arrive at a conclusion upon the subject. While it must be ad-mitted that there are some arguments which would seem to favor an affirmative decision upon the question, nevertheless there are various' and weighty considerations which force us into the belief that the Oxford scholarships will probably not benefit America. In the first place, we can not but feel that for young men of the United States to leave their country and go across the sea to England, there to receive their education, will bring undesirable results for our country. The men who would take advantage of the scholarships would in the vast majority of cases be the brightest and manliest young men of their respective states. And for these men to be drained out of our own institutions and out of our country to be sent to England to patronize and bring honor to Oxford University would be deplorable, to say the least. Moreover the scholarships will be procurable by the average Sophomore of our colleges. This is the most forma-tive period in a man's life and that the best young men of our country, and those who are expected sometime to become im-portant factors in our national affairs, should leave their native land and spend their formative under-graduate period in a foreign country would be anything but desirable. There they will be brought entirely under English influences; they will be instilled with English principles and English ideas, in many cases so very different from American principles and ideas; they will be virtually denationalized. If the course at Oxford could be pursued as a post-graduate course by those who hold degrees from American institutions the result might not be so ISO THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. bad ; but if those who are to become leaders in our govern-mental affairs are to have their ideas fashioned according to British moulds, it must be dangerous to the principles of this American republic. The plan seems to be one-sided in this respect: that England is to do all the moulding of character and ideas, while Germany and the United States are to do none. For while we feel sure that our fellow-citizens who shall go to Oxford will be "up and doing" and will be fair representatives of our dear country, yet it seems equally certain that the hundred students who shall go from the United States, despite their American "hustle," will exert absolutely no influence over the 13,000 undergrad-uates with whom they associate. That these scholarships were established with a view to benefitting England rather than the United States or Germany seems almost certain from a remark made by Mr. Rhodes while he was forming his plans for estab-lishing them. The suggestion having been made by a friend that the recipients of the scholarships be permitted if they choose to study at Harvard or any other American institution, Mr. Rhodes is said to have replied thus: "The Americans can, if they like, endow scholarships for their own universities; my scholars must all come to my old university." It might be said on the other side of the question that America will be benefitted by the scholarships because they are to secure the "peace of the world." But would she? Even if we should go so far as to grant that this little educational scheme of one man will secure world-wide peace, can we assert that America would be benefitted by it? It seems quite cer-tain that with our twentieth-century civilization there will be no more really great wars, no wars between the great powers of the world. In the arbitration of international difficulties the United States is never forced to make any very important con-cessions. Great Britain and Germany would reap far more benefit from the proposed world wide peace than the United States would. And even if war should come, is not the United States government, backed by her patriotic and liberty-loving sons, able to hold her own against any other nation in the 1 Rupp B-u.ild.ing* YORK, PENN'A. Watch for his Representative when he visits the Collleeggee | PATRONIZE OUR ADVERTIZERS. Geo. E. Sparkler, PIANOS, ORGANS, MUSICAL MERCHANDISE Music Rooms, - York St. Telephone 181 GETTYSBIJEG C. B. KITZMILLER, DEALER IN Hats, Caps, Roots, and ^ ■ifcn -Douglas Shoes GETTYSBURG, FJPL. k M. AIAEMAN, Manufacturer's Agent and Jobber of Hardware, Oils, faints and Quensware Gettysburg, Pa. THE ONLY JOBBING HOUSE IN ADAMS COUNTY W. F. Codori, ^DEALER IN*^ —SPECIAL RATES TO CLUBS. York Street, Gettysburg, Pa. PATRONIZE OUR ADVERTISERS. EGKENRODE & BEGKEK CHAMBEESBURG ST., Dealers in Beef, Veal, Lamb, Pork, Sausage, Pudding, Bologna, Hams, Sides, Shoulders, Lard, Prime Corned Beef. The Medico-Chirurgical College of Philadelphia. DEPARTMENT OF MEDICINE Offers exceptional facilities to graduates of Gettysburg College, especially to those who have taken a medical preparatory or biological course. The instruction is thoroughly practical, particular attention being given to laboratory work and bed-side and ward-class teaching. Ward-classes are limited in size. A modified seminar method is a special feature of the Course. Free quizzing in all branches by the Professors and a special staff of Tutors. The College has also a Department of Dentistry and a Department of Pharmacy. All Gettysburg College students are cordially invited to inspect the College and Clinical Amphitheatre at any time. For announcements or information apply to SENECA EGBERT, Dean of the Department of Medicine, 17th & Cherry Streets, PHILADELPHIA, PA. Wright, %[ \ Co. 140-144 Woodward Avenue, DETROIT, MICH. Send for Catalogue and Price List. Special Designs on Application. Manufacturers of high grade Fraternity Emblems Fraternity Jewelry Fraternity Novelties Fraternity Stationery Fraternity Invitations Fraternity Announcements Fraternity Programs HELP THOSE WHO HELP US. The Intercollegiate Bureau of Academic Costume. Chartered igo2. Ootre:ll In an up-to-datest tailor-made gown,U-pi-de-i-da 1 fr ff The boys are wild, and prex is, too, You never saw such a hulla-ba-loo. CHORUS. — U-pi-dee-i-dee-i-da 1 etc. Her voice is clear as a soaring lark's, And her wit is like those trolley-car sparks I When 'cross a muddy street she flits, The boys all have conniption fits I The turn of her head turns all ours, too. There's always a strife to sit in her pew; 'Tis enough to make a parson drunk, To hear her sing old co-ca-che-lunk 1 The above, and three other NEW verses to U-PI-DEE, m and NEW WORDS, catchy, up-to-date, to many fibf! others of the popular OLD FAMILIAR TUNES; be- IT ff ifhjf sides OLD FAVORITES ; and also many NEW SONGS. JAW> JJJ SONGS OF ALL THE COLLEGES. fTtf jtWl Copyright, Price, $1.30, postpaid, MOD. Wpr' ijuu HINDS & NOBLE, Publishers, New York City. |L> ft TT Schoolbooks ofall publishers at one store, fptf Bsa-C^ -C* _C^ -d -Ci _£i _C^ -Ci _Cs _fci _£s Ban m m mmmm m. Mi mmmm m. \ 50 YEARS' EXPERIENCE TRADE MARKS DESIGNS COPYRIGHTS &C. 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Gute Unternehmensführung kann man auf zwei Fragen reduzieren: Wie finde ich gute Mitarbeiter? Und: Wie halte ich diese? Die Autoren zeigen, wie mit einem neunstufigen Mitarbeiterauswahlprozess der Anteil von Top-Mitarbeitern von 30 auf 90 Prozent erhöht werden kann. Dafür müssen Unternehmen beispielsweise immaterielle und materielle Anreize optimal kombinieren. In dieser aktualisierten und komplett bearbeiteten Neuauflage geben die Autoren wertvolle Tipps zum Umgang mit sozialen Netzwerken.

»Der Faktor Mensch bestimmt den Unternehmenserfolg« – die zentrale Managementerkenntnis wird in kaum einem Unternehmen umgesetzt. Jörg Knoblauch spricht Klartext: Wer im Vertrauen auf das Bauchgefühl neue Mitarbeiter auswählt, wer sich darauf verlässt, dass sich die Fehlbesetzung noch zum Performer entwickeln wird, wer unter Personalentwicklung nur das jährliche Mitarbeitergespräch versteht, der darf sich nicht wundern, wenn sein Team in eine Abwärtsspirale gerät. Knoblauch zeigt, warum das Personalmanagement in die Unternehmensführung gehört und warum es ein entscheidender Wettbewerbsvorteil ist, wenn Mitarbeiterauswahl, -förderung und -führung oberste Priorität bekommen.