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Financial infrastructure is the underlying foundation of a country's financial system. It is comprised of all institutions, information, technologies, rules, and standards which enable financial intermediation. The quality of a country's financial infrastructure determines the efficiency of intermediation, the ability of lenders to evaluate risk and of borrowers to obtain credit, insurance, and other financial products at competitive terms. This report covers two dimensions of Jamaica's financial infrastructure: 1) payments, remittances, and securities settlement systems, and; 2) credit reporting systems. This technical note does not provide a detailed assessment of individual payments system in the form of a Report on Observance of Standards and Codes (ROSC), but uses the framework of international standards for carrying out a detailed analysis of the existing systems in Jamaica, including the Committee on Payment and Settlement Systems (CPSS) and International Organization of Securities Commissions (IOSCO) Principles for Financial Markets Infrastructure (PFMIs), the CPSS General Guidance for National Payment System Development, the CPSS-World Bank General Principles on International Remittance Services (GPs), the World Bank General Principles for credit reporting and related methodologies. The information used in the assessment includes relevant national laws, regulations, rules and procedures governing the systems and other available material.

International students and the revenue they generate for Australia are undoubtedly big business. But that business is arguably based on a revenue-generating model that is over-reliant on a few of our close neighbours to fill a yawning and growing funding gap created by governments that appear to have little concern for the declining quality of education that their lack of adequate care has produced.

The failure of top-down development policies in the Third World has given rise to a variety of grassroots, or bottom-up, development strategies to combat the severe poverty that continues to plague developing countries. Among these grassroots approaches, microcredit has grown rapidly in popularity, scope, & impact over the last two decades. Microcredit provides financial capital for poor entrepreneurs who toil in the informal, poverty sectors in developing country economies. In addition to the thousands of predominantly nongovernmental organizations that offer microcredit programs, many national governments in the Third World are now seeking to integrate microcredit strategies into their development policy & planning. Accordingly, this article examines the microcredit movement, including its rationale & underlying premises, its impact on the poor, & its role in development policy. 32 References. Adapted from the source document.

Abstract
This article analyses the legality of Western states providing weapons to Ukraine. It focuses on five areas of international law: (1) the jus ad bellum; (2) the law of neutrality; (3) international humanitarian law; (4) state responsibility for complicity in internationally wrongful acts; and (5) international criminal law. It concludes that weapons transfers likely violate the law of neutrality, entitling Russia to respond with countermeasures; that Russia can lawfully target transferred weapons under ihl; and that weapons transfers could lead to state and individual responsibility if evidence comes to light that the Ukrainian military is using weapons previously supplied by the West to commit war crimes. By contrast, providing weapons to Ukraine does not violate the jus ad bellum because they are in service of Ukraine's right of self-defence against Russia and does not make the supplying states co-belligerents in Russia's international armed conflict with Ukraine.

Emphasis on the Soviet-American relationship; based on conference paper. Elements of bipolarity, independence vs. interdependence, domestic influences, nuclear weapons, reconnaissance, ideological moderation.

The paper analyses the global natural gas market in the context of the
identification of influential international factors or phenomena that will
determine trends in the next foreseeable period. Natural gas is an energy
source that, in addition to renewable energy sources, shows a high and
continuous growth trend. Almost all countries possess certain means to
produce electricity (including renewable energy sources) or obtain it from
the immediate environment, while gas and oil are energy products that all
countries use but do not have. Trends related to these two energy sources
and the factors that influence the creation of their market are numerous and
complex. The authors present some important aspects and approaches to energy
security issues related to global energy challenges, as well as the risks
and threats that the world is exposed to today and in the future. The
authors conclude that natural gas as the energy of the future is recording
increasing consumption, which requires a profound analysis of trends in this
area.