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Os aspectos territoriais, sociais e institucionais devem ser compreendidos como componentes dos eventos desastrosos. Não obstante, após o terremoto e o maremoto que atingiram o Chile em 27 de fevereiro do 2010, persiste neste país a idéia de que um sismo é somente um evento natural. É por isso que não se vislumbram avanços significativos nos aspectos institucionais em relação à prevenção e à gestão dos riscos e dos desastres. Isso também fica demonstrado quando se avaliam os planos de ordenamento territorial existentes nas cidades atingidas, os procedimentos de discussão e aprovação dos mesmos e, em particular, o funcionamento das instituições responsáveis por dirigir as emergências. ; Los aspectos territoriales, sociales e institucionales deben ser comprendidos como componentes de los eventos desastrosos. Sin embargo, luego del terremoto y maremoto que afectó a Chile el 27 de febrero del 2010, persiste en este país la idea de que un sismo es un evento solamente natural. Por esto, no se aprecian avances significativos en los aspectos institucionales que dicen tener relación con la prevención y gestión de los riesgos y los desastres. Esto queda demostrado al evaluar los planes de ordenamiento territorial existentes para las ciudades afectadas, los procedimientos de discusión y aprobación de estos y, en particular, el funcionamiento de las instituciones encargadas del manejo de las emergencias. ; Territorial, social, and institutional aspects should be understood as components of disastrous events. However, after the earthquake and tsunami that struck Chile on February 27, 2010, the idea that an earthquake is only a natural event persists. Therefore, no significant progress has been seen in the institutional aspects that claim to deal with the prevention and management of risks and disasters. This is made evident when evaluating the existing territorial ordaining plans for the affected cities, their discussion and approval procedure, and particularly the performance of the institutions responsible for emergency management.

This article is a study of the circumstances surrounding the work carried out on the Spanish-French scientific shipment to Peru's virreinate between 1734 and 1743. We have deliberately avoided dealing with the scientific and technical aspects of the operations carried out in the vicinity of the city of Quito. We will therefore devote these pages to analysing the abundant documentation on organisation, démarches, conflicts with the colonial administration, travel and financing, tensions between the French and Spanish parties, social impact. This is not the first time that this study has been addressed, however, we believe that original conclusions have been drawn, as sources from archives from both countries have been consulted. This fact, given the deeply nationalistic nature with which other previous reconstructions of the events cured during the years of dispatch have been tested, is important, since the approximation of the honour of one of the two nations is now evaded. ; Peer reviewed ; This article is a study of the circumstances surrounding the work carried out on the Spanish-French scientific shipment to Peru's virreinate between 1734 and 1743. We have deliberately avoided dealing with the scientific and technical aspects of the operations carried out in the vicinity of the city of Quito. We will therefore devote these pages to analysing the abundant documentation on organisation, démarches, conflicts with the colonial administration, travel and financing, tensions between the French and Spanish parties, social impact. This is not the first time that this study has been addressed, however, we believe that original conclusions have been drawn, as sources from archives from both countries have been consulted. This fact, given the deeply nationalistic nature with which other previous reconstructions of the events cured during the years of dispatch have been tested, is important, since the approximation of the honour of one of the two nations is now evaded. ; El presente artículo constituye un estudio sobre ...

Algunas regiones marginales y de frontera pertenecientes al actual territorio argentino, durante la etapa colonial, presentan particularidades para su estudio; originadas en parte, por la escasa cantidad de fuentes escritas que han quedado para reconstruir los diversos aspectos de la vida social, económica y política. En el presente trabajo se realizará una descripción detallada de una fuente hallada el Archivo y Biblioteca Nacionales de Bolivia. Nos referimos a la visita que realizara el oidor de la audiencia de La Plata, licenciado Andrés Garabito de León, al territorio de Corrientes situado en el Nordeste argentino entre 1650 y 1653. Este detallado expediente contribuye a conocer mejor el funcionamiento y el mundo de la encomienda en la región, a mediados del siglo XVII. Se presentarán, además, algunos resultados de esta visita a las reducciones de indios de este territorio. ; There are some marginal and frontier regions belonging to the present Argentinean territory that during the time of the colony show certain characteristics to be studied that originated partly in the scarce written information that has been preserved and are at hand to reconstruct the diverse aspects of the social, economic, and political aspects. This work presents a detailed description of a source found in the Archive of the National Libraries of Bolivia. This is related to the visit of licenciado Andrés Garabito de León, "oidor" from the "Audiencia" from La Plata to the territory of the province of Corrientes in the north-east of Argentina between 1650 and 1653. The detailed file contributes knowledge concerning the way the mail operated in that region during the middle of the 17th century. Some results of this visit will be presented to the reduced tribes of aborigines of this territory. ; Grupo de Investigación Antropología y Filosofía (SEJ-126). Universidad de Granada

The paper focuses on the relationship between Lithuanian gays and lesbians' coming out experiences and sexual citizenship. Analyzing Lithuanian homosexuals' view of public/private divide, it asks how they perform their identities in public and private settings and how they align themselves with being public. What anxieties over citizenship and sexual boundaries are reflected in their life histories? The paper starts from the premise that "sexual citizenship" can be considered a fourth aspect of citizenship in addition to the traditional model of political, social and civic rights. Plummer (1995) conceptualizes it as rights to choose what people do with their bodies, emotions, relationships, gender identities and desires. This citizenship is related to the plurality of multiple and overlapping public discourses on intimacies. Diane Richardson (2000a) emphasizes the "right of identity" as a part of sexual citizenship. This right to have a public identity is particularly relevant when we speak of wider issues of secrecy and disclosure, discrimination and tolerance, and the private and public. Examining 32 interviews with gays and lesbians, in this paper, we argue that their life stories comprise the context for the emergence of the sexual citizen because these stories tell of exclusion based on sexuality, gender, body, and publicity in the post-Soviet Lithuania. Since the public is still exclusive of homosexuality, most interviewed homosexuals attempt to pass as heterosexual in the public sphere. In a society in which heteronormativity is a powerful principle of social and cultural order and heterosexuality, an essential aspect of human nature and intelligibility, the majority of homosexual people hide their sexual orientation from their relatives, colleagues and even friends. The informants' lives oscillate between pleasure to be open and danger to be stigmatized. On one hand, they strive for greater integration of their sexual experiences into cultural narratives of citizenship; on the other hand, absorbing normative sexual and gender disciplines they succumb to conservative appeals to privatized sexual identities.

In the Hellenistic empires of Alexander the Great and his successors in Greece, Egypt and the Near East, new forms of court culture and political ideology developed during the last three centuries BCE. Appropriated by Parthian kings and Roman emperors alike, the culture of these Macedonian courts eventually influenced the evolution of royal ideology and court culture in both western Europe and the Islamic East. In this first all-embracing study of the Hellenistic royal court the author endeavours to explain, among other things, the success and long life of Hellenistic royal culture. This study has a broad set-up. It discusses the social, cultural and formal aspects of court society, palace architecture, royal patronage of the arts and sciences, and monarchic representation. The focus is on the three principal Macedonian dynasties: the Antigonids (Macedonia and Greece), Ptolemies (Egypt and the eastern Mediterranean) and Seleukids (Asia Minor, the Near East and Iran). , In Chapter 1 (titled 'Court, kingship and ideology') the methodological en theoretical framework is set out, using recent literature about court culture, state formation and political representation in varying cultures and periods. Hellenistic kingship is defined by the centrality of war and conquest in both ideology and practice. Chapter 2 ('Palaces') discusses the architecture and decoration of royal residences, accentuating the ideological implications, particularly regarding the connection of (royal) palace and (autonomous) city. Chapter 3 ('Court society') discusses the social, formal and political aspects of the court: the courtiers (the so-called 'friends of the king'), the royal family, giving i.a. new interpretations of the position of the queen and the crown prince, as well as the dynamics of faction and succession strife. In Chapter 4 ('Cultural and scientific patronage') a new explanation is given for the remarkable fact that the artistic and scientific life, notably, but not exclusively, at the Ptolemaic Museum at Alexandria, was ...

La configuración del fenómeno del desempleo más una situación de necesidad económica de obligada atención por los poderes públicos a través del sistema de Seguridad Social que como un problema cuya única solución integral pasa por el empleo de mecanismos complementarios que abarquen más aspectos que el puramente económico, plantea la necesidad de articular medidas novedosas que superen las clásicas -dirigidas a operar con la ratio oferta/demanda- diseñando una nueva política que abarque los aspectos de capacitación y empleo, como fórmula superadora del escaso éxito que aquéllas han tenido históricamente desde una perspectiva integral. En este sentido, entre los distintos mecanismos de iniciativa privada que tienen por objeto luchar contra el desempleo encontramos el llamado "outplacement" o empresas de recolocación cuya actuación se centra en acomodar en el mercado laboral a los trabajadores desempleados, aplicando para ello distintas técnicas multidisciplinares.______________________The configuration of the fhenomenon of the unemployment more as a situation of economic need of obliged attention for the public power across the system of social security that as a problem which only integral solution is the use of complementary mechanisms that include more aspects that the purely economic one. It raises the need to articulate new measures that overcome the classic measures (directed to producing with the ratio offer/demand), designing a new politics that includes the aspects of training and employment, to overcome little success that the classic measures have had from an integral point of view, along the history. In this way, between the different mechanisms of private iniciative that have for object fight against the unemployment, we find the so called "outplacement" or companies of replacement which purpose is to accommodate on the labour market the unemployed workers, applying, for it different multidisciplinary technologies.

Aquest treball d'investigació explora i analitza divuit narracions curtes de Robert Graves publicades al llarg dels anys 1947 a 1962. Està dirigit a establir la relació entre Graves i Mallorca mitjançant els elements autobiogràfics i locals que es poden trobar en les narracions. La idiosincràsia de l'illa queda reflectida en la descripció i comportament dels personatges, en els aspectes socials, polítics, culturals i lingüístics, i en l'escenari espaciotemporal d'aquestes narracions; tots aquests elements han servit a Graves per a conformar-les, sempre des del seu personal punt de vista. Es tracta d'un treball hermenèutic sobre el color local en la narrativa breu de Graves. Consta d'una anàlisi filològica o de crítica textual, seguida de l'aportació de la font, notícies, anècdotes, fets biogràfics i altres elements que serviren d'inspiració a l'autor. ; In this research, eighteen short stories written by Robert Graves and published along 1947 and 1962 are explored and analyzed. It focuses on the relationship between Graves and Majorca through the autobiographical and local elements found in the stories. It shows how the idiosyncrasy of the place, reflected on the description and behaviour of the characters, on the social, political cultural and linguistic aspects and the spatial-temporal setting where these stories are settled, has formed these stories told from Graves's point of view. It is a hermeneutic work on the local colour of Graves's short narrative. This study relies firstly on a philological component or textual criticism, followed by the source, news, anecdotes, biographical facts and other elements that inspired the writer. ; Este trabajo de investigación explora y analiza dieciocho relatos breves escritos por Robert Graves a lo largo de los años 1947 a 1962. El estudio se centra sobre todo en mostrar a través de estas obras la relación que existió entre Robert Graves y Mallorca, rastreando en ellas elementos autobiográficos y locales. Se muestra como la idiosincrasia del lugar, reflejada en la ...

While the regional incentive programmes attract high attention in the regional policy debate, less attention is devoted towards the municipal transfer systems. Nevertheless, these systems will in many countries redistribute more financial resources between regions than the more narrowly defined regional policy programmes. The municipal transfer programmes are described briefly for the 5 Nordic countries. Focus is made on the volume of the programmes (relatively to the size of the local government activity level) as well as on the principles adopted for shaping the transfer programmes. The material shows a great variation between the countries, both in philosophy as well as in practical implementation. The systems are normally based on two pillars, one intending to equalise differences in local income potentials, and one to compensate for differences in the needs for public services. The last pillar will be based on models giving credit to social and demographic factors generating the need structure. The analyses focus on differences between the countries in how demographic and social factors are weighted when the need structure is calculated, and how these differences lead to different regional effects of the transfer programmes. The paper also focus on how differences in the equalising of the income potentials lead to different regional effects. The paper end up in a description on the total "un-intended" regional distribution effect of the programmes. The un-intended aspect refer to the fact that regional policy is not (at least formally) an argument in the programmes, they are designed from a welfare and income distribution perspective. However, some aspects are included for some of the countries with a declared regional policy aim. Also, regional policy strategies are often referred to in the debate on the programmes, even when they are not formally included. The mix between implicit and explicit regional policy elements is discussed on a comparative perspective.

Nearly 200 historical accounts have been examined and analysed in order to determine the effects of the magnitude 8+ 1855 Wairarapa, New Zealand, earthquake. The documents examined include contemporary diaries, letters and journals, newspaper reports and articles, archives, memoranda and reports of the Wellington Provincial Government as well as later reminiscences, extracts from published scientific papers, books and other articles. Other than the published accounts of Sir Charles Lyell, who, in 1856, first recognised the importance of the earthquake as causing the greatest deformation and surface fault rupture then known, there has been no comprehensive account of the effects of the earthquake in the scientific literature until now. Much or the data is presented with extensive quotations from the source material, especially where conflicting accounts on important aspects have been found. All material is analysed with an understanding of the geographical, social and political conditions at the time. The reliability of the material is taken account of so that first-hand accounts, that have been recorded no more than several years after the earthquake, and in which there are no obvious inconsistencies or confusion with other earthquakes, are valued most highly. Using the historical accounts as the primary source of data, but also taking into account the results of more recent geological, geomorphological and seismological investigations of the deformation, many aspects of the earthquake are discussed in detail. These are mainshock magnitude and epicentre; felt intensity distribution: descriptive account of the effects of the mainshock on people (including casualties) and man-made structures by location throughout New Zealand (including a resume of contemporary building techniques): effects on the environment from strong shaking such as fissuring, liquefaction, spreading, subsidence and landslides, and from tectonically produced uplift, subsidence and faulting; biological effects; tsunami and seiche; aftershock occurrence and social response and recovery.

The analysis of projects can be undertaken in three stages;
the ftrst stage looks at the ftnancial aspects; the second stage
examines the projects from an economic aspect and the third stage
appraises the project from a social perspective. For the uninitiated
reader it is important to distinguish between these three types of
analyses. Financial analysis is the initial stage of examining a project
with respect to its viability. The analysis is undertaken from the point
of view of the sponsoring agency or individual and the prices used for
valuing inputs and outputs are those prevailing in the market, in other
words, current prices. These prices naturally include taxes and
subsidies which may and do act as a distorting feature. Also, in
ftnancial analysis the objective is more or less straightforward and
simple - that is maximize proftts. For a government planning offtcer or
for one who is concerned with looking at the macro economy in
particular, the picture that emerges is more complex. This is so because
the government planning offtcer has to satisfy himself that the aims and
objectives of development projects mesh in with the economic and social
aspirations of the country as a whole and are not the objectives of a
single particular group of persons. For this, the pricing and valuing
system has to be different from the one that examines projects from a
ftnancial point of view. Economic or efftciency analysis, therefore,
looks at the beneftts and costs of a project from the broader viewpoint
of its impact on the economy. The major differences between economic and
ftnancial analysis lies in the fact that prices used to value inputs and
outputs are net of taxes and subsidies; these latter reflect simply
transfer payments and not real cost. Also, in an economic analysis,
funds received from outside agencies are not treated as beneftts and
interest and principal repayments are not treated as cost.

In the Dialectic of Enlightenment (New York, 1972) Theodor W. Adorno & Max Horkheimer developed a radical critique of civilization; while it is not always clear whether their main concern is with structural constraints & deformations, or with a culturally codified logic of domination, on both readings, the autonomy & efficacy of social relations seem severely reduced. Behind this manifest reductionism, there is an implicit line of reasoning that has some interesting points of contact with recent debates in social theory, especially with the critique of functionalism. It is suggested that Adorno & Horkheimer simultaneously radicalized & relativized the functionalist approach. The radicalization consists of a shift to the anthropological level; the functional circle of self-preservation, anchored in the fundamental relationship between man & nature, encompasses the totality of human life & determines the structures of its specific spheres. However, it also draws on irreducibly transfunctional aspects of the human condition. Two essential components of subjectivity, mimesis & thinking, participate in the universe of self-preservation without being fully absorbed by it. Every structured expression of mimesis & thinking is inextricably bound up with the logic of domination & the acceptance of power as the "principle of all relations." Although the notion of power as a principle of system-building is only outlined in the Dialectic of Enlightenment, the implications are clear enough to cast further doubt on Jurgen Habermas's critique of Adorno & Horkheimer, ie, that they lacked a system-theoretical perspective. Their argument is not a final affirmation of the functional principle: the idea of a process of system formation through the necessarily incomplete & contested subsumption of the human condition under structures of power differs from the mainstream functionalist emphasis on adaptation & self-reproduction. Also, the transfunctional aspect is reintroduced through the cultural -- ie, imaginary -- dimension of the configurations of power. Modified AA

The study of migrant groups within their new sociopolitical and geographical environments is no new phenomenon; people have been moving in groups and individually to 'foreign' lands for centuries in order to seek a'betterf way of life. When the emergent group is of a distinct race and culture, complex problems of adaptation or adjustment for the group may occur in the receiving society. This is often accompanied by some degree of rejection or ostracism of the newcomers by members of the host society. The present study attempts to analyse some aspects of the adaptive strategy of Guyanese now living in Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada. The writer estimates that there are at least two hundred Guyanese families living in Winnipeg. A majority of these families represent Guyana's two major ethnic groups (Indo- and Afro-Guyanese). The emphasis in the past in the study of minority groups by social scientists has been an analysis of the socioeconomic adjustment and achievement of the immigrants within their new country of residence. Scant attention is paid, however, to the immigrant's socio-cultural past within his country of birth. A recapitulation of the historical development of the socio-economic and cultural structures (kinship organization, job experience, education and training, cultural values. . .) of the immigrant's background is imperative in order to understand some aspects of his social behaviors and cultural values within the `receiving' society. Race, ethno-culture and socio-political differences are some of the more prominent features to be considered when a comparative analysis between the tsendingt and the rreceivingr countries is made. For practical purposes, Guyanese living in Winnipeg must not be considered as a homogeneous group of immigrants. Guyanese society is made up of a medley of ethnic groups and cultures, most of which are attempting to foster group identity through cultural af.filiations with the land of their ancestors (Africa, India, China. . .). More recently, various political organizations ...

Le phénomène de la migration interne au Canada est considéré comme un facteur important en ce qui a trait à de nombreux aspects de l'organisation sociale. Un échantillon de 453 migrants a fourni des données concernant leurs caracteristiques, les motifs pour lesquels ils se deplacent et l'importance de différents types de relationsà l'endroit de destination. Dans le cadre d'une nouvelle methode touchant à localiser les migrants, on à interrogé les nouveaux arrivés concernant les raisons pour lesquelles ils se sont deplaces ainsi que les expériences vécues au cours de cette période de relocalisation à l'endroit de destination. Bien que leurs réponses aient permis de corroborer l'exactitude de plusieurs tendances décelées au cows de recherches antérieures, il n'en demeure pas moins qu'une analyse approfondie des données a laké entrevoir deux points quelque peu différents. La majorité des gens se déplacent sous certaines auspices et il semble que l'existence et la nature d'un réseau de "relations"à l'endroit de destination influencent la façon dont les nouveaux arrivés se comportent face au déplacement et à la relocalisation.Continuing migration within Canada is seen as an important factor for many aspects of social organization. A sample of 453 internal migrants provides data on the characteristics of migrants, their reasons for moving, and the effects of having different types of connections in the receiving community. By utilizing a new approach to locating migrants, very recent migrants were interviewed about their reasons for moving and their experiences in relocating in the target area. While several patterns established through previous research are corroborated, two apparently discrepant findings appear. These are explained when analysis of the data is refined. Most migrants are found to move under some auspices. The availability and nature of a network of local connections are found to affect the ways in which migrants deal with moving and relocating.

SummaryENDOGAMY AND ECONOMIC SYSTEM IN A FRENCH VILLAGEThe analysis of endogamy and of socially accepted relations is vital for an understanding of the relevant aspects of social life, particularly for a deeper knowledge of the relations between man and the land. In the village economy, which is dominated by market laws and characterized by owner–cultivation, land property is a means of increasing economic power. Thus, it holds a decisive position regarding family relations and marriage. These relations have an instrumental role in the inheritance and use of land. The re–formation of inherited property in the farm initiates various processes, and confirms the affective importance and the extent of family and marriage relations.RésuméENDOGAMIE ET SYSTÈMÉ ECONOMIQUE DANS UN VILLAGE FRANÇAISl'analyse de l'endogamie et des relations de parenté socialement reconnues est utile á la compréhension des autres aspects de la vie sociale, en particulier à la connaissance profonde des rapports des hommes et de la terre. Dans cette économie villageoise régie par les lois du marché, caractérisée par le mode de faire–valoir direct, la propriété de la terre, moyen d'accroître les pouvoirs économiques de chacun, occupe une position déterminante à l'égard des relations de parenté et d'alliance. Celles–ci jouent un rôle instrumental dans la transmission de la terre et dans sa mise en valeur. La reconstitution effective des patrimoines au niveau de l'exploitation agricole met en jeu plusieurs mécanismes et confirme la teneur affective et l'extension vécue des relations de parenté et d'alliance.ZusammenfassungENDOGAMIE UND WIRTSCHAFTSS YSTEM IN EINEM FRANZÖSISCHEN DORF Die Analyse der Endogamie und der sozial anerkannten Verwandt–schaftsbeziehungen ist wichtig für das Verständnis der anderen Aspekte des sozialen Lebens, insbesondere für die tiefere Kenntnis der Beziehungen 2wischen Menschen und Boden. In der dörflichen Wirtschaft, die von der Marktgesetzen beherrscht wird und durch die Eigenbewirtschaftung charakterisiert ist, nimmt das Bodeneigentum, als Mittel die ökonomische Macht jedes einzelnen zu erhohen, eine entscheidende Position ein hinsichtlich der Verwandtschaft und der Ehe. Diese Beziehungen spielen eine instrumentale Rolle in der Vererbung und in der Nutzung des Bodens. Die effektive Wieder–herstellung der Erbgüter auf der Ebene des landwirtschaftlichen Betriebes bringt mehrere Mechanismen ins Spiel und bestätigt die affektive Bedeutung und das Ausmaß der Beziehungen von Verwandtschaft und Ehe.

The associations established in the years following the Second World War – in particular the Congress for cultural freedom (CCF) and the Société européenne de culture (European Society of Culture, SEC) – were intended to create bonds among intellectuals and to promote the discussion about their function within society. This study investigates the reasons and causes which lead to said associations, and it analyses the intellectual's perception of their own role at that time and of the instruments they had to perform their civil task. The SEC, founded by the philosopher Umberto Campagnolo in 1950, has been chosen as the case study. The present PhD thesis is divided into: a methodology introduction, a story of culture organization between the end of the Nineteenth Century and the Second World War (a part which has been considered necessary in order to underline the aspects of continuity and the possible original features regarding intellectuals' associations that were founded during the Cold War years) and, finally, an in-depth analysis of the case study. The investigation moves from a transnational and comparative perspective, making use of the analytical procedure, first introduced by Pierre Bourdieu and Gisèle Sapiro, in a critical manner. In order to explore the core of this thesis, several different phases have been identified: the first one falls between 1945 and 1950, the second between 1950 (year of birth for the main intellectuals' associations) and September 1953, the third covering the period until March 1956, an important date in SEC history. For this study a wide review of cultural magazines, as well as of relevant archive material has been carried out. Campagnolo conceived culture as a creation of values: in his opinion since intellectuals, were responsible for conceiving ideas and symbols they should maintain full autonomy in the literary field. It was exactly in such dualism between autonomy and engagement that the SEC's originality can be traced. The association was founded on the conviction that, only by uniting their strength, intellectuals would have been able to win influence within society, though it was the individual who had to commit himself/herself personally. The SEC's peculiarity was determined also by its effective political independence, in spite of financing from the Italian government. It was conceived as a real association, and the instruments used for its action – the magazine "Comprendre", the national centres and the Rencontre Est-Ouest ["East-West Encounter"] – did represent new important elements for the organizations of the time. By means of a thorough study of Campagnolo's speeches, of the "Comprendre" magazine, of the Meetings debates, of correspondence and of the strategy for new members' recruitment, the SEC's task was defined as "metaphysical", meaning that it was not linked to events, but to the spirit which should have accompanied any cultural action. It was hence inferred that the SEC and the CCF were competing for non-political reasons. Actually, the SEC intended to safeguard the autonomy of intellectual relations (defining such an approach as politique de la culture [politics of culture]), while the CCF supported heteronomy, employing Art and literature with a precise political aim. The contrast between these two institutions was hence due to a different conception the intellectuals held about their own role in society. Therefore, the associations under examination did not represent an instrument with a univocal meaning: as demonstrated by the analysis which has been carried out, they were devoid of any intrinsically autonomous or heteronymous function with respect to the literary field. Furthermore it is clearly confirmed that intellectuals had a role of mediation, as they had always affirmed during past history The development of intellectuals' associations needs to be ascribed to the social aspects of the writer's or artist's function, more than to political factors related to the conflict between the blocks. In the attempt to fully understand the reasons for the success of intellectuals' associations in those years, it has been hypothesized that a decline of the authority provided by traditional mediation forms among intellectuals, masses and politics had occurred. The social problem connected to such form of cultural organization was brought to light: in the SEC, it was less renowned intellectuals who showed particular involvement, and this means that actual interest for the SEC was due to their social condition and to the position a person had in the intellectual field. The sources examined have shown how in Western Europe, after the Cold War peak reached in the months of armed conflict in Korea, the conception of engagement itself evolved: intellectuals were integral part of society, were free to choose time, place and mode for their interventions, positioning themselves midway between pure action and pure Art. This point of arrival corresponded to Campagnolo's own conclusions, who rightly maintained that the root of the intellectuals' problem and of their crisis was social, rather than moral or political, relating to their role in a society which was more and more massified. The acceptance of an intermediate position among those expressed after the Second World War put a light on how ideological differences could be smoothed, while the need for autonomy and defence of intellectuals as expressed by associations remained.